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An  Ideal  Feeder's  Head 

Hereford  steer,    Peerless  Wilton   39th's   Defender,   grand   champion  at  the 

International  Live  Stock  Show  in  1906.     Bred  and  fitted 

by  H.  J.  Fluck,  Goodenow,  111.     Sold  to 

Iowa  State  College. 


Types  and  Market  Classes 


OF 


Live  Stock 


H:^W.  VAUGHAN,  M.  Sc.  in  Agr. 

PROFESSOR  OF  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA 


Second  Revision 
Eleventh  Edition 


U.  G.  ADAMS  &  COMPANY 

COLUMBUS    OHIO 

1927 


fttOFERTY  LIBRARY 

N.  C.  State  Celkge 


COPYRIGHT,   1915,   1919,   1927 
BY    H.    W     VAUGHAN 


First  Edition    July,  1915 

Second  Edition.  June,  1916 

'Ihird  Edition.  June.  1917 

Fourth  Edition    July,  191« 

Fifth  Edition  (Revised),  July    191 1» 

Sixth  Edition,  May.  1920 

Seventh  Edition,  July,  1921 

Eighth  Edition   October    192^ 

Ninth  Edition  (Revised),  July,  192:i 

Tenth   Edition,  August,  1925 

Eleventh  E  lition,  ^ug  Jst,  1  »27 


'.    T.   HEER   PRINTING   CO. 
COLUMBUS,  OHIO 
1927 


PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION 

During  the  past  eight  years  there  has  been  added  to  the  curriculum 
in  most  of  our  agricultural  colleges  a  new  course  dealing  with  the  tj^es 
of  farm  animals,  market  demands,  and  market  classes  of  live  stock. 
More  properly  speaking,  it  has  been  inserted  at  the  very  beginning  of 
the  work  in  animal  husbandry,  forming,  as  it  logically  does,  the  founda- 
tion course  in  the  study  of  that  important  branch  of  agriculture.  This 
is  a  soundly  practical  study;  the  student  is  brought  to  a  much  clearer 
conception  of  values  and  a  much  better  appreciation  of  live  stock  than 
was  possible  under  the  former  system  of  teaching. 

Recognizing  the  need  of  a  text  on  this  subject  which  could  be  placed 
in  the  hands  of  students,  the  writer  prepared  and  printed  a  loose-leaf 
edition  which  has  been  used  at  Ohio  State  University  during  the  past 
three  years.  This  met  with  favorable  comment,  and  requests  have 
been  made  that  the  material  be  put  into  book  form.  After  careful 
revision  and  the  addition  of  a  number  of  illustrations,  this  is  now 
attempted  in  the  hope  that  students  and  teachers  and  the  general 
reader  as  well  may  find  such  a  book  useful. 

The  arrangement  of  the  subject-matter  corresponds  to  the  order 
usually  followed  in  teaching,  but  may  be  varied  as  desired,  each  sec- 
tion of  the  book— Cattle,  Sheep,  Hogs,  and  Horses— being  complete 
in  itself. 

The  writer  desires  to  express  his  indebtedness  to  numerous  com- 
mission men,  buyers  for  the  packing  houses,  and  others  who  have 
kindly  given  their  assistance  during  his  quests  for  information,  and  to 
numerous  experiment  station  publications,  particularly  the  series  of 
excellent  bulletins  issued  by  the  Illinois  Station  setting  forth  the  results 
of  their  studies  of  the  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  markets.  Acknowledg- 
ment of  valued  assistance  is  due  my  present  co-workers,  and  also 
Professors  C.  S.  Plumb  and  F.  R.  Marshall  at  Ohio  State  University. 

Iowa  State  College  H.  W.  VAUGHAN 


July,  1915 


PREFACE  TO  NINTH  EDITION 

At  most  agricultural  colleges,  the  study  of  beef  cattle  begins  with 
the  fat  steer  at  the  market,  both  on  foot  and  in  the  carcass,  proceeds 
from  that  to  a  study  of  cattle  in  the  feed-lot,  and  then  considers  the 
selection  and  operation  of  the  breeding  herd.  Similar  procedures  are 
followed  in  studying  other  kinds  of  live  stock.  If  the  student  learns 
his  first  lesson  at  the  market,  he  comes  to  the  feed-lot  fortified  with  a 
knowledge  of  what  the  market  wants,  and  he  then  proceeds  to  a  study 
of  the  breeding  herd  knowing  what  both  the  market  and  the  feed-lot 
demand  from  the  breeder. 

This  is  the  most  practical  method  of  teaching  because  the  market 
should  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  breeder  and  feeder;  and  it  is  best  from  a 
pedagogical  standpoint  because  finished  animals  for  the  market  are 
easiest  to  judge,  are  judged  on  practical  points,  the  student  begins  his 
judging  with  the  more  elementary  and  proceeds  to  the  more  complex 
types,  and  as  he  progresses  to  each  new  stage  he  brings  with  him  a 
soundly  practical  viewpoint  gained  from  his  previous  experience. 
Finally,  in  his  study  of  the  commercial  breeding  herd,  the  produce  of 
which  goes  direct  to  the  feed-lot  or  market,  he  learns  the  necessity  for 
using  good  purebred  sires,  and  this  leads  in  logical  order  to  the  study 
of  the  breeds  of  farm  animals.  He  takes  up  the  breed  studies  with  a 
clear  understanding  that  it  is  the  function  of  these  breeds  to  supply 
seed  to  improve  all  farm  and  range  live  stock,  he  has  a  firm  belief  in 
their  power  to  perform  this  function,  and  he  is  led  to  compare  and  value 
the  various  breeds  as  they  should  be  compared  and  valued,  namely  on 
their  ability  to  meet  practical  requirements.  In  short,  the  modern 
plan  of  study,  which  proceeds  from  the  market  to  the  breeds,  rather 
than  from  the  breeds  to  the  market,  gives  the  student  the  right 
philosophy  of  the  live-stock  business,  particularly  the  purebred  live- 
stock business. 

In  the  first  edition  of  this  book,  published  in  1915,  the  undersigned 
endeavored  to  present  clearly  and  concisely  the  things  a  beginner  in 
the  field  of  animal  husbandry  should  know,  leading  up  to,  but  not 
including,  the  study  of  the  breeds.  In  the  revised  edition  published 
in  1919,  and  in  this,  the  second  revised  edition,  the  objective  has  been 
the  same  as  in  1915.  A  number  of  new  illustrations  have  been  added 
and  much  of  the  text  matter  has  been  rewritten,  but  the  original  plan 
has  been  retained  without  any  radical  changes. 

The  writer  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  teachers  in  a  number 
of  colleges  who  upon  request  suggested  many  of  the  changes  and  addi- 


10  Preface  to  Ninth  Edition 

tions  included  in  the  present  volume.  He  is  especially  indebted  to 
members  of  the  animal  husbandry  and  dairy  husbandry  divisions  of 
the  University  of  Minnesota  for  advice  and  help,  particularly  to 
Professor  E.  F.  Ferrin  for  assistance  in  revising  discussions  of  the  types 
of  hogs.  For  special  information  and  data  which  they  have  furnished 
upon  various  subjects,  the  writer  is  indebted  to  E.  W.  Sheets,  acting 
chief  of  the  animal  husbandry  division,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Indus- 
try; C.  V.  Whalin,  in  charge,  marketing  live  stock,  meats,  and  wool 
division,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricultural  Economics;  J.  S.  Montgomery, 
manager  of  the  Central  Cooperative  Commission  Association,  St.  Paul, 
Minn.;  R.  A.  Hammond,  manager,  Ohio  Sheep  and  Wool  Grow- 
ers' Association,  Columbus,  Ohio;  Edward  N.  Wentworth,  director. 
Armour's  Livestock  Bureau,  Chicago,  111.;  and  L.  D.  H.  Weld,  manager. 
Commercial  Research  Department,  Swift  and  Company,  Chicago,  111. 
Many  of  the  illustrations  which  appear  in  the  following  pages  have 
been  kindly  supplied  by  authors  of  experiment  station  and  other  pub- 
lications, teachers,  breeders,  breed  record  associations,  and  others. 
Individual  mention  of  these  is  made  in  the  list  of  illustrations,  beginning 
on  page  13.  In  this  list  credit  is  also  given  for  illustrations  which 
originally  appeared  in  other  publications  and  which  are  reproduced 
herein  with  the  permission  of  the  authors  or  publishers. 

St.  Paul,  Minnesota  H.  W.  VAUGHAN 

July,  1923 


CONTENTS 


Page 

General  Introduction 19 

PART  ONE— CATTLE 
Chapter 

Introduction 27 

I     Beef  Type 33 

II     The  Beef  Carcass 47 

III  Packing  House  By-Products  from  Cattle 63 

IV  The  Value  of  Type  in  Beef  Making 70 

V     American  Cattle  Markets 78  ' 

VI     Fashions  in  Market  Cattle 96 

VII     Selection  of  Feeder  Steers 106 

VIII     Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Cattle 119 

IX     Breeding  for  the  Market 145 

X     Dairy  Type 163 

XI     The  Secretion  of  Milk 180 

XII     Variations  in  the  Usefulness  of  Dairy  Cows 188 

XIII  Breeding  for  Milk  Production 195 

XIV  Dual-Purpose  Cattle 206 

PART  TWO— SHEEP  . 

Introduction 213 

XV     Mutton  Type 218 

XVI     The  Mutton  Carcass  and  the  Pelt 228 

XVII     American  Sheep  Markets 239 

XVIII     Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Sheep 244 

XIX     Breeding  for  the  Market 267 

XX     The  Merino  or  Fine-Wool  Type 279 

XXI     Wools  and  Wool  Growing 288 

PART  THREE— SWINE 

Introduction 311 

XXII     The  American  or  Lard-Type  Hog 317 

XXIII  The  Bacon-Type  Hog 327 

XXIV  The  Hog  Carcass 335 

XXV     Hog  Markets  and  Pork  Packing— Past  and  Present 352 

XXVI     Market  Classification  of  Swine 365 

XXVII     Breeding  for  the  Market 381 

PART  FOUR— HORSES 

Introduction 399 

XXVIII     Brief  Anatomical  Study  of  the  Horse 402 

XXIX     Some  Important  Facts  Concerning  the  Horse 413 

XXX     Origin  of  the  Types  of  Horses 424 

11 


12  Contents 

Chapter  Page 

XXXI  Draft  Type 432 

XXXII  The  Carriage  or  Heavy-Harness  Horse 447 

XXXIII  The  Roadster  or  Light-Harness  Horse 453 

XXXIV  The  Saddle  Horse 460 

XXXV  The  Hunter  and  Polo  Pony 469 

XXXVI  Market  Classes  of  Horses 477 

XXX VII  Horse  Breeding 494 

XXXVIIl  The  Mule    507 

XXXIX  Market  Classes  of  Mules 516 

XL  Unsoundness  in  the  Horse 523 

Index 535 


IIXUSTRATIONS 

An  Ideal  Feeder's  Head.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) — Frontispiece 

Fig.  Page 

1.  Rough,  stony,  or  semi-arid  land  may  be  utilized  as  pasture.     (U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921.) 20 

2.  Points  of  the  steer 34 

3.  Points  of  the  steer 35 

4.  A  model  bullock.     (From  Prof.  C.  F.  Gobble,  Purdue  University.) ...  37 

5.  The  right  pattern 39 

6.  Correct  type  in  the  fat  steer.      (From  Iowa  State  College.) 40 

7.  A  steer  with  excellent  lines.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 41 

8.  A  "rare  good  one."     (From  Prof.   Gordon  H.  True,  University  of 

California.) 43 

9.  Proportions  of  lean  and  fat  in  beef  cattle.     (From  Influence  of  Nutrition 

Upon  the  Animal  Form,  Dean  H.  J.  Waters,  University  of  Missouri.)  44 

10.  Knocking  cattle 47 

11.  Prime  steer  carcass 51 

12.  Beef  ribs.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 54 

13.  Well-marbled  beef.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 56 

14.  Cuts  of  beef  indicated  in  the  live  animal.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) .  57 

15.  Wholesale  cuts  of  beef 59 

16.  How  by-products  reduce  dressed  beef  prices.     (From  Monthly  Letter 

to  Animal  Husbandmen,   Aug.   1,   1920,   Edward  N.   Wentworth, 

Armour's  Livestock  Bureau,  Chicago.) 63 

17.  Dairy-type  steer.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 71 

18.  Dairy-type  steer.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 73 

19.  Carcasses  of  beef  and  dairy  calves.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 75 

20.  Carcasses  of  beef  and  dairy  calves.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 76 

21.  Average  monthly  receipts  and  shipments  of  cattle  at  Chicago 81 

22.  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago.     (From  A.  G.  Leonard,  President,  Union 

Stock  Yard  and  Transit  Company.) 86 

23.  Ideal  of  early  beef  producers.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 97 

24.  Prime  baby  beef.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 99 

25.  Baby  beeves  on  feed.     (From  Prof.  A.  B.  Caine,  Iowa  State  College.) . .  100 

26.  A  g  and  champion  fat  heifer.     (From  Prof.  Gordon  H.  True,  Univer- 

sity of  California.) 102 

27.  Fancy  selected  feeders.     (From  111.  Bui.  78,  Prof.  H.  W.  Mumford.) ...  109 

28.  An  average  load  of  steers  on  feed.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 113 

29.  Fancy  feeder  calves 117 

30.  Western  range  cattle 120 

31.  Prime  beef  steers 123 

32.  Choice  beef  steers 124 

33.  Good  beef  steers.     (From  111.  Bui.  78,  Prof.  H.  W.  Mumford.) 125 

34.  Common  beef  steers.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Rpt.  113.) 126 

35.  Prime  butcher  heifer.     (From  C.  V.  Whalin,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricul- 

tural Economics.) 127 

13 


14  Illustrations 

Fig.  Page 

36.  Good  to  choice  butcher  heifer.     (From  111.  Bui.  78,  Prof.  H.  W.  Mum- 

ford.) 128 

37.  Choice  butcher  cow.     (From  C.  V.  Whalin,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricul- 

tural Economics.) 129 

38.  Good  cutters.     (From  111.  Bui.  78,  Prof.  H.  W.  Mumford.) 130 

39.  Medium  canner  cow.     (From  C.  V.  Whalin,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricul- 

tural Economics.) 131 

40.  Choice  veal  calf.     (From  111.  Bui.  78,  Prof.  H.  W.  Mumford.) 132 

41.  Choice  feeder  steer.     (From  111.  Bui.  78,  Prof.  H.  W.  Mumford.) 134 

42.  Good  feeder  steer.     (From  C.  V.  Whalin,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricultural 

Economics.) 135 

43.  Medium  feeder  steer.     (From  C.  V.  Whalin,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricul- 

tural Economics.) 136 

44.  Common  feeder  steer.     (From  C.  V.  Whalin,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricul- 

tural Economics.) 137 

45.  Stockers.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bui.  1218.) 138 

46.  Effect  of  supply  of  cattle  upon  live  and  beef  prices.     (From  Studies 

in  Live  Stock  Marketing,  July,  1921,  L.  D.  H.  Weld,  Swift  and  Com- 
pany, Chicago.) 142 

47.  Spread  in  price  of  beef  steers.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921.)       143 

48.  Distribution  of  beef  cattle  in  the  United  States.     (From  U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.  Yearbook,  1921.) 147 

49.  Old-time  Texas  long-horn.     (From  F.  R.  Marshall,  Salt  Lake  City, 

Utah.) 151 

50.  Crossbred  beef  cattle.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 152 

51.  Selecting  a  future  herd  header.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bui. 

1135.) 155 

52.  Correct  type  in  the  beef  bull 158 

53.  Correct  type  in  the  beef  cow 160 

54.  An  excellent  breeding  cow.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 162 

55.  Points  of  the  dairy  cow 164 

56.  A  dairy  cow  with  utility  points  emphasized.     (From  Edw.  G.  Horst, 

Extension  Service,  Holstein-Friesian  Association  of  America.) 165 

57.  Excellent  type  in  the  dairy  cow.     (From  Karl  B.  Musser,  Associate 

Secretary,  American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club.) 167 

58.  Type  and  production.     (From  R.  M.  Gow,  Secretary,  American  Jersey 

Cattle  Club.) 169 

59.  Excellent  type  in  the  dairy  cow 171 

60.  A  combination  of  beauty  and  utility 172 

61.  An  inferior  dairy  cow.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 175 

62.  Excellent  type  in  the  dairy  bull.     (From  lowana  Farms,  Davenport, 

Iowa.) 177 

63.  Excellent  type  in  the  dairy  bull.     (From  D.  D.  Tenney,  Crystal  Bay, 

Minn.) 178 

64.  Cross-section  of  cow's  udder.     (From  Sisson's  Anatomy  of  the  Domes- 

tic Animals,  Dr.  Septimus  Sisson,  Ohio  State  University.) 181 

65.  Where  milk  is  made.     (After  Hough  and  Sedgwick.) 183 

66.  Circulation  to  and  from  the  udder.     (After  Bitting  of  the  Indiana 

Experiment  Station.) 184 

67.  Distribution  of  dairy  cattle  in  the  United  States.     (From  U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.  Yearbook,  1921.) 196 


Illustrations  15 

Fig.  Page 

68.  What  good  purebred  sires  can  do.     (From  Iowa  Bui.  188,  Profs.  H.  H. 

Kildee  and  A.  C.  McCandlish.) 200 

69.  The  dual-purpose  type.     (From  James  J.  Hill,  St.  Paul,  Minn.) 207 

70.  The  dual-purpose  type.     (From  George  P.  Grout,  Duluth,  Minn.) ....  208 

71.  Points  of  the  sheep 219 

72.  Correct  type  in  the  fat  wether 220 

73.  Long-wool  sheep.     (From  Iowa  Department  of  Agriculture.) 222 

74.  An  International  grand  champion.     (From  F,  S.  Springer,  Secretary, 

American  Southdown  Breeders'  Association.) 224 

75.  The  mutton  type.     (From  W.  O.  Stride,  Secretary,  Southdown  Sheep 

Society  of  Great  Britain.) 225 

76.  Determining  age  of  sheep  from  the  teeth.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Farmers'  Bui.  1199.) 226 

77.  Killing  sheep  at  Chicago 229 

78.  Lamb  carcasses.     (From  111.  Bui.  147,  A.  C.  Glover,  Secretary  of  Ex- 

periment Station.) 231 

79.  Break-joints  and  round-joint , 232 

80.  Wholesale  cuts  of  mutton 234 

81.  Average  monthly  receipts  and  shipments  of  sheep  and  lambs  at  Chicago  242 

82.  Prime  native  lambs.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 245 

83.  Prime  western  lambs.     (From  Armour  and  Company,  Chicago.) 247 

84.  Choice  western  lambs.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 249 

85.  Good  lambs.     (From  Prof.  W.  C.  Coffey,  University  of  Illinois.) 250 

86.  Common  lambs.     (From  111.  Bui.  129,  Prof.  W.  C.  Coffey.) 251 

87.  Prime  western  yearlings.     (From  111.  Bui.  129,  Prof.  W.  C.  Coffey.) ... .  252 

88.  Good  yearlings.     (From  111.  Bui.  129,  Prof.  W.  C.  Coffey.) 253 

89.  Prime  native  wethers.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 254 

90.  Common  western  wethers.     (From  111.  Bui.  129,  Prof.  W.  C.  Coffey.)  255 

91.  Fancy  selected  feeder  lambs.     (From  111.  Bui.  129,  Prof.  W.  C.  Coffey.)  256 

92.  Good  feeder  lambs.     (From  111.  Bui.  129,  Prof.  W.  C.  Coffey.) 257 

93.  Common  feeder  lambs.     (From  111.  Bui.  129,  Prof.  W.  C.  Coffey.) ....  258 

94.  Canner  ewe.     (From  C.  V.   Whalin,  U.  S.  Bureau   of  Agricultural 

Economics.) 262 

95.  Sheep  and  lamb  receipts  and  fat  lamb  prices  at  Chicago 265 

96.  Distribution  of  sheep  in  the  United  States.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Yearbook,  1921.) 270 

97.  Correct  type  in  the  mutton  breeding  ram.     (From  Alan  Eltringham, 

Babraham,  Cambridge,  England.) 273 

98.  Correct  type  in  the  breeding  ewe 274 

99.  A  prize-winning  flock 276 

100.  A  flock  of  uniform  type 277 

101.  Class  A  Merino  ram.     (From  F.  R.  Marshall,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 

Industry.) 280 

102.  Class  B  Merino  ram.     (From  F.  R.  Marshall,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 

Industry.) 281 

103.  Class  C  Merino  ram.     (From  F.  R.  Marshall,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 

Industry.) 284 

104.  Class  B  Merino  ewe.     (From  F.  R.  Marshall,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 

Industry.) 285 

105.  Rambouillet  ewe.     (From  F.  R.  Marshall,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 

Industry.) 286 


16  Illustrations 

Fig.  Page 

106.  Wool  fiber  highly  magnified 288 

107.  Cross-section  of  a  wool  fiber.     (After  McMurtrie,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Rpt.,  Examination  of  Wools  and  Other  Animal  Fibers.) 289 

108.  Woolen  and  worsted  yarns.     (From  U.  S.  House  of  Rep.  Doc.  342, 

Wool  and  Manufactures  of  Wool.) 291 

109.  Clothing  and  combing  wools.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206,  F.  R. 

Marshall.) 293 

110.  Grades  of  combing  wool.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206,  F.  R. 

Marshall.) 295 

111.  Grades  of  combing  wool.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206,  F.  R. 

Marshall.) 296 

112.  Grades  of  combing  wool.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206,  F.  R. 

Marshall.) 298 

113.  Tender  wool  showing  break.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206,  F.  R. 

Marshall.) 306 

114.  Points  of  the  hog 319 

115.  Excellent  type  in  the  fat  barrow.     (From  Prof.  Arthur  L.  Anderson, 

Iowa  State  College.) 320 

116.  Berkshire  barrow.     (From  F.  S.  Springer,  Secretary,  American  Berk- 

shire Association.) 322 

117.  Duroc-Jersey    barrow.      (From    Joe    Haaga,     Assistant     Secretary, 

National  Duroc-Jersey  Record  Association.) 323 

118.  Some  essentials  in  type  well  illustrated.     (From  Prof.  E.  F.  Ferrin, 

University  of  Minnesota.) 325 

119.  Five  Poland-China  barrows.     (From  Prof.  Arthur  L.  Anderson,  Iowa 

State  College.) 326 

120.  Fancy  market  bacon  pig.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 328 

121.  Correct  bacon  type.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 329 

122.  Bacon  type  as  shown  in  the  herd  boar 330 

123.  Bacon  type  as  shown  in  the  brood  sow.     (From  Prof.  E.  F.  Ferrin, 

University  of  Minnesota.) 333 

124.  The  hog  hoist 336 

125.  Dressing  hogs 337 

126.  Shipper-dressed  carcasses  in  the  cooler 338 

127.  Effect  of  underline  on  trimming  of  side 339 

128.  Fat  and  bacon  carcasses  compared.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) ....  341 

129.  Wholesale  cuts  of  pork.     (After  111.  Bui.  147.) 343 

130.  A  side  of  pork.     (From  Wis.  Circ.  139,  Prof.  A.  W.  Hopkins,  Editor.) . .  344 

131.  Weights  of  the  finished  wholesale  cuts  from  a  250-pound  hog.     (From 

Swift  and  Company  Year  Book,  1922,  L.  D.  H.  Weld.) 346 

132.  Average  monthly  receipts  and  shipments  of  hogs  at  Chicago 354 

133.  Unloading  hogs  at  Chicago 357 

134.  Prime  heavy  hogs.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 366 

135.  Heavy  butcher  hogs.     (From  National  Duroc-Jersey  Record  Associa- 

tion.)   _ 367 

136.  Medium  butcher  hogs 368 

137.  Light  butcher  hogs.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 369 

138.  Packing  sow 370 

139.  Classification  of  market  hogs  according  to  quality  and  weight 374 

140.  Hog  receipts  and  prices  at  Chicago 380 


Illustrations  17 

Fig.  Page 

141.  Distribution  of  hogs  in  the  United  States.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Yearbook,  1921.) 385 

142.  Pork  production  in  the  United  States  closely  related  to  corn  production  387 

143.  Excellent  type  in  the  herd  boar.     (From  Prof.  E.  F.  Ferrin,  University 

of  Minnesota.) 391 

144.  Good  type  in  the  boar.     (From  Iowa  Department  of  Agriculture.) ....  393 

145.  Good  type  in  the  brood  sow.     (From  Iowa  Department  of  Agriculture.)  396 

146.  Skeleton  of  the  horse.     (From  Sisson's  Anatomy  of  the  Domestic 

Animals,  after  Ellenberger  and  Baum,  Dr.  Septimus  Sisson,  Ohio 

State  University.) 4:^3 

147.  Bones  of  the  fore  leg 404 

148.  Fore  leg  from  knee  to  ground 415 

149.  Bones,  tendons,  and  ligaments  of  the  fore  leg.     (After  Haubner.) ....  405 

150.  Bones  of  the  hock 406 

151.  Man  and  horse  compared.     (From  Book  of  the  Horse,  by  permission 

of  the  Gresham  Publishing  Company,  London.) 407 

152.  Exterior  of  the  hoof 4^8 

153.  Diagram  showing  structure  of  the  foot 419 

154.  The  parts  of  the  hoof 410 

155.  Attachment  of  fore  leg  to  body.     (From  Book  of  the  Horse,  by  per- 

mission of  the  Gresham  Publishing  Company,  London.) 413 

156.  The  horse  in  motion 415 

157.  Front  view  of  fore  legs 418 

158.  Side  view  of  fore  legs 418 

159.  Side  view  of  hind  legs 419 

160.  Rear  view  of  hind  legs 419 

161.  Defects  in  fore  legs  and  their  effects  on  action 420 

162.  Sickle  hock 421 

163.  Points  of  the  horse 435 

164.  A  grand  champion  draft  gelding 436 

165.  The  draft  type 439 

166.  Six  high-class  well-matched  draft  geldings.     (From  Ellis  McFarland, 

Secretary,  Percheron  Society  of  America.) 441 

167.  Heavy  drafters  in  harness 442 

168.  Before  and  after  fattening.     (From  B.  E.  Carmichael,  Ohio  Experi- 

ment Station.) 445 

169.  Carriage  or  heavy-harness  type.     (From  Prof.  C.  N.  Arnett,  Montana 

State  College.) 447 

170.  The  heavy-harness  type  in  action.     (From  William  Little,  Manager, 

Irvington  Farm,  Sewickley,  Pa.) 448 

171.  The  carriage  horse  in  harness.     (From  The  Spur,  New  York  City.) ....  451 

172.  Sensational  action.     (From  The  Spur,  New  York  City.) 452 

173.  Roadster  or  light-harness  type.     (From  Hon.  John  R.   Thompson, 

Libertyville,  111.) 455 

174.  The  light-harness  horse  in  action 457 

175.  Five-gaited  saddle  horse.     (From  Mrs.  R.  Tasker  Lowndes,  Danville, 

Ky.) 460 

176.  The  saddle  horse  in  action.     (From  Mrs.  R.  Tasker  Lowndes,  Dan- 

ville, Ky.) 463 

177.  The  three-gaited  saddle  type 464 


1 S  Illustrations 

Fig.  Page 

178.  A  typical  hunter.     (From  Nimrod's  Condition  of  Hunters,  by  per- 

mission of  the  John  Lane  Company,  New  York  City.) 470 

179.  The  hunter  in  action.     (From  The  Field,  New  York  City.) 471 

189.     A  hunt  team  and  pack  of  fox  hounds.     (From  Nimrod's  Condition  of 

Hunters,  by  permission  of  the  John  Lane  Company,  New  York  City.)  472 

181.  Polo  pony  of  excellent  type.     (From  The  Spur,  New  York  City.) ....". .  474 

182.  The  polo  pony  in  action.     (From  Harold  A.  Taylor,  Coronado,  Cal.) . .  475 

183.  Horse  market  at  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago 479 

184.  Eastern  chunk.     (From  Prof.  C.  N.  Arnett,  Montana  State  College.) . .  482 

185.  Express  horse.     (From  Wayne  Dinsmore,  Secretary,  Horse  Associa- 

tion of  America.) 484 

186.  Light  artillery  horse.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 485 

187.  Heavy  artillery  horses.     (From  Capt.  M.  G.  Thornburg,  Command- 

ing Officer,  Remount  Service  Training  Camp,  Camp  Johnston,  Jack- 
sonville, Fla.) 486 

188.  Fire  horses 487 

189.  Runabout  horse 489 

190.  Cavalry  horse.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 491 

191.  High-class  pony.     (From  George  A.  Heyl,  Washington,  111.) 492 

192.  Distribution  of  horses  in  the  United  States.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Yearbook,  1921.) 495 

193.  Excellent  type  in  the  draft  stallion 497 

194.  The  Percheron  stallion  Jalap.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 498 

195.  A  noted  sire  and  his  get.     (From  William  Crownover,  Hudson,  Iowa.)  499 

196.  The  Belgian  stallion  Farceur's  King.     (From  Prof.  W.  H.  Peters,  Uni- 

versity of  Minnesota.) 500 

197.  Correct  type  in  the  draft  mare.    (From  Iowa  Department  of  Agricul- 

ture.)    502 

198.  Percheron   brood  mares  in   harness.     (From   Prof.   J.   L.   Edmonds, 

University  of  Illinois.) 503 

199.  Two-year-old  Percheron  fillies.     (From  Prof.  J.  L.  Edmonds,  Univer- 

sity of  Illinois.) 505 

200.  Correct  type  in  the  jack.     (From  L.  M.  Monsees,  Pettis  County,  Mo.)  598 

231.     Prize-winning  mules 511 

212.     High-class  draft  mules 512 

203.  Distribution  of  mules  in  the  United  States.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Yearbook,  1921.) 514 

204.  Mining  or  pack  mule.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 517 

205.  Cotton  or  lead  mule.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 518 

206.  Sugar  mule.     (From  Capt.  M.  G.  Thornburg,  Commanding  Officer, 

Remount  Service  Training  Camp,   Camp  Johnston,  Jacksonville, 

Fla.) 519 

207.  Farm  or  wheel  mule.     (From  Iowa  State  College.) 520 

208.  Small  pair  of  wheel  mules  to  army  wagon.     (From  Capt.  M.  G.  Thorn- 

burg, Commanding  Officer,  Remount  Service  Training  Camp,  Camp 

Johnston,  Jacksonville,  Fla 521 

209.  Bog  spavin 524 

210.  Bone  spavin 525 

211.  Curb 528 

212.  Ringbone  and  cocked  ankle 531 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES 


OF 


LIVE  STOCK 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION 

/  Two  distinct  systems  of  farming  are  practiced  in  the  United  States: 
(1)  grain  farming  and  (2)  live-stock  farming.  Grain  farming  is  the 
growing  of  crops  useful  for  food  or  clothing,  the  income  being  derived 
from  the  sale  of  these  crops.  Live-stock  farming  is  that  system  in 
which  the  crops  are  used  chiefly  or  entirely  as  feed  for  the  live  stock 
which  is  produced,  the  income  being  derived  from  the  sale  of  animals, 
milk,  and  wool. 

Live  stock  farming  requires  greater  skilL — Of  the  two  systems, 
live-stock  farming  affords  much  greater  opportunity  for  the  develop- 
ment and  application  of  knowledge  and  skill.  The  live-stock  farmer 
must  be  equally  competent  as  a  crop  producer  with  the  grain  farmer, 
and  in  addition  must  know  how  to  handle  and  feed  live  stock  econom- 
ically. He  must  have  a  certain  practical  knowledge  of  animals  and 
their  requirements  which  comes  with  experience  and  which  can  be 
readily  acquired  by  one  who  has  a  liking  for  farm  animals. 

Ample  reward  for  greater  skilL — Dr.  C.  E.  Thome  of  the  Ohio 
Experiment  Station  has  said,  "While  it  is  true  that  meat  is  an  ex- 
travagantly wasteful  food,  viewed  solely  from  the  economic  standpoint, 
yet  it  is  also  true  that  the  ruling  peoples  of  the  earth  are  the  meat 
eaters,  and  the  time  is  probably  far  in  the  future  when  in  this  country 
meat  v/ill  be  banished  from  the  tables  of  any  but  the  improvident, 
even  though  further  advance  in  its  cost  should  take  place.  The  out- 
look, therefore,  is  that  for  a  long  time  to  come  the  farmer  who  possesses 
the  ability  to  handle  live  stock  successfully  will  find  ample  opportunity 
for  the  exercise  of  his  talents  and  ample  reward  for  the  larger  ability 
which  such  exercise  involves." 

Live  stock  converts  farm  wastes  into  profits.4^The  keeping  of  live 
stock  on  the  farm  provides  a  means  of  utilizing  as  feed  or  bedding 
much  that  would  otherwise  be  wasted.  This  applies  to  large  amounts 
of  roughage  such  as  straw  and  com  stalks.     Meadow  aftermath  and 

19 


"•  f-  State  0>"p, 


20  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

rough,  stony,  or  semi-arid  land  unsuited  for  the  plow  may  be  grazed, 
unmarketable  soft  corn  may  be  fed,  and  other  similar  wastes  may  be 
converted  into  profits  where  live  stock  is  kept. 

Live  stock  and  soil  fertility.-r^'The  maintenance  of  soil  fertility  is 
more  difficult  under  the  grain-farming  system.  Although  it  has  been 
experimentally  demonstrated  that  fertility  may  be  maintained  and  in- 
creased by  the  use  of  commerical  fertilizers  and  green  manures  with- 
out the  aid  of  live  stock,  nevertheless  the  keeping  of  live  stock  and  the 
utilization  of  farm  manure  afford  the  easiest  method  of  maintaining 
and  increasing  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Where  farming  has  been  prac- 
ticed for  a  long  period  of  time,  the  most  fertile  and  prosperous  com- 
munities are  those  in  which  much  live  stock  has  been  kept  and  the 
manure  properly  handled  and  applied  to  the  soil. 


:ar 


W^' 


Fig.  1. — Rough,  stony,  or  semi-arid  land  unsuited  to  the  plow  may  be  utilized 
as  pasture. 

A  comparison  of  crop  yields  during  five  years  on  ten  beef  cattle 
farms  in  ten  counties  in  Iowa,  and  on  ten  grain  farms  in  the  same 
neighborhoods,  showed  that  the  cattle  farms  averaged  14  bushels 
more  corn  per  acre,  7  bushels  more  oats,  and  1  ton  more  hay. 

Value  of  farm  manures. — Experiments  indicate  that  if  animals 
were  kept  in  stalls  or  pens  throughout  the  year  and  the  manure  care- 
fully saved,  the  approximate  value  of  the  manure  produced  by  each 
horse  or  mule  would  be  $27,  by  each  head  of  cattle  $20,  by  each  hog 
$4,  and  by  each  sheep  $2.  The  total  fertilizing  value  of  the  manure 
produced  in  the  United  States  in  one  year  would,  therefore,  be 
$2,112,847,000.  In  this  estimate,  no  account  is  taken  of  the  value  of 
the  manure  for  improving  the  mechanical  condition  and  drainage  of 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  21 

soils,  which  is  fully  as  great  as  the  value  of  the  phosphoric  acid,  potash, 
and  nitrogen  contained  in  farm  manure. 

Saves  four-fifths  of  fertilizing  value  of  crops  fed. — When  fed  to 
animals,  a  large  proportion  (about  80  per  cent)  of  the  fertilizing 
element  of  the  feed  is  recovered  in  the  excrement.  For  example,  if  a 
ton  of  com  is  sold  off  the  farm,  it  removes  fertility  to  the  value  of 
$6.56;  while  if  fed  to  animals,  this  ton  of  corn  results  in  manure  worth, 
while  fresh,  $5.24.  If  manure  is  properly  handled  and  applied  to  the 
soil,  little  of  its  fertilizing  value  will  be  lost.  The  corresponding 
figures  for  one  ton  of  oats  are  $7.43  and  $5.94  respectively,  for  timothy 
$5.21  and  $4.16,  red  clover  $8.79  and  $7.03,  alfalfa  $8.76  and  $7.00, 
oat  straw  $3.30  and  $2.64,  corn  silage  $1.22  and  $0.97,  whole  milk 
$1.96  and  $1.52. 

Purchased  feeds  increase  soil  fertility. — In  many  instances  the 
best  method  of  increasing  the  fertility  of  a  farm  is  to  buy  feeds  which 
may  be  fed  profitably  to  the  live  stock  on  hand,  and  then  carefully 
handle  and  apply  the  manure  produced.  For  example,  a  ton  of  cotton- 
seed meal  or  wheat  bran  used  for  feed  gives  manure  worth,  while 
fresh,  $19.20  and  $10.19  respectively. 

Farm  animals  convert  crops  into  products  of  greater  value.^^The 
live-stock  farmer  who-  fails  to  conserve  and  utilize  farm  manures  is 
surely  overlooking  a  great  source  of  profit.  On  the  other  hand,  ani- 
mals should  not  be  regarded  merely  as  fertilizer  factories.  The 
manure  produced  by  farm  stock,  while  valuable,  is  secondary  in  im- 
portance to  the  value  of  the  anim.als  themselves.  Farm  animals  are 
valued  primarily  for  their  meat,  milk,  wool,  labor,  fats,  and  hides. 
The  stockman  converts  his  crops  into  animal  products  of  higher  value  to 
man,  aiming  thereby  to  reap  a  larger  profit  than  is  possible  by  the 
grain-farming  system,  and  at  the  same  time  he  increases  the  fertility 
of  his  land. 

0.  E.  Baker  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricultural  Economics  states  ^ 
that  fully  60  per  cent  of  the  crop  acreage  in  the  United  States,  exclu- 
sive of  pasture,  is  used  to  produce  feed  for  farm  animals,  and  that 
fully  80  per  cent  of  the  total  food  and  feed  produced  by  all  tame  and 
wild  vegetation  in  the  United  States  is  consumed  by  live  stock.  The 
latter  statement  includes  cereal  crops,  improved  and  unimproved 
pastures  in  farms,  woodland  pastures  in  farms  and  national  forests, 
and  arid  or  semi-arid  open  range  land  in  the  West. 

Advantages  of  live-stock  farming  summarized: 

1.  Live-stock  production,  properly  conducted,  is  a  profitable 
business. 


lA  Graphic  Summary  of  American  Agriculture,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook, 
1921,  p.  409. 


22 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


2.  It  provides  a  home  market  and  pays  better  than  average 
prices  for  farm  crops. 

3.  Makes  easily  possible  the  maintenance  and  improvement  of 
soil  fertility. 

4.  Gives  steady  employm.ent  throughout  the  year  to  labor  on 
the  farm  and  thereby  helps  to  solve  the  farm  labor  problem. 

5.  Utilizes  as  pasture  m.uch  land  unfit  for  the  plow. 

6.  Utilizes  miuch  that  would  otherwise  be  waste  on  the  farm, 
such  as  straw,  corn  stalks,  soft  corn  and  other  unsaleable  grain,  meadow 
afterm^ath,  many  weeds,  and  garbage. 

7.  Affords  the  best  m.eans  of  utilizing  such  by-products  as  tank- 
age, cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal,  gluten  feed,  and  skim  milk. 

8.  Affords  opportunity  for  higher  development  and  application 
of  skill  in  farming. 

9.  The  care  and  handling  of  live  stock  is  intensely  interesting 
work. 

Numbers  and  values  of  our  live  stock. — The  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  reports  the  numbers  and  values  of  live  stock  on  farms 
in  the  United  States  on  January  1,  1923,  as  follows: 


Number 

Horses 18,853,000 

Mules 5,506,000 

Milk  cows 24,429,000 

Other  cattle 41,923,000 

Sheep 37,209,000 

Swine 63,424,000 


Totals , 


191,344,000 


Total  value 

$1,314,956,000 

472,735,000 

1,241,673,000 

1,076,254,000 

278,939,000 

726,699,000 

5,111,256,000 


Value  per  head 

$69.75 
85.86 
50.83 
25.67 
7.50 
11.46 


RaEk  of  (he  stales  in  value  of  live  stock. — Following  are  the 
total  values  of  horses,  mules,  cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep  on  farms  in  each 
of  the  48  states  on  January  1,  1923,  as  estimated  by  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture: 


1.  Iowa 

2.  Texas .  .  .  . 
Illinois.  .  . 
Wisconsin. 


7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 


17 


Millions 
of  dollars 

..431 
..288 
..276 
..237 


3 
4 

5.  Nebraska 235 

6.  Ohio 214 

Missouri 212 

Minnesota 210 

Kansas 197 

New  York 189 

Indiana 178 

California 165 

Pennsylvania 163 

Michigan 147 

15.  South  Dakota 144 

16.  Oklahoma 103 

Kentucky 96 


Millions 
of  dollars 

18.  Tennessee 95 

19.  Montana 95 

20, 
21. 
22, 
23, 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30, 


Colorado 94 

North  Dakota 93 

Georgia 88 

North  Carolina 87 

Virginia 77 

Mississippi 74 

Alabama 72 

Oregon 69 

Idaho 65 

Arkansas 63 

Wyoming 58 

31.  Louisiana 55 

32.  Arizona 54 

33.  South  Carolina 53 

34.  Washington 52 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  23 


Millions 

of  dollars 

of  dollars 

35. 

Utah 

49 

42. 

New  Jersey 

27 

36. 

West  Virgin!  1 

43 

43. 

Miiae 

23 

37. 

New  Mexico 

43 

44. 

MiS3acius3tts 

22 

38. 

Maryland 

35 

45. 

Connecticut 

18 

39. 

Florida 

3  J 

48. 

New  Hampshire.  .  . . 

13 

40. 

Vermont 

Nevada 

32 

21 

47. 

48. 

Delaware 

6 

41. 

Rhode  Island 

4 

Total 

..  ..5,111 

Growth  of  American  live-stock  industry  in  50  years. — The  follow- 
ing census  returns  show  the  growth  in  numbers  of  our  live-stock 
industry  since  1870: 

N'lmbsrs  {millions)  of  animals  on  farms  in  the  United  States  on  census  dates 


Horses 

Mules 

Milk  cows .  . 
Other  cattle . 

Sheep  

Swine 


1920 

1910 

1900 

1890 

1880 

1870 

(Jan.  1) 

(Apr.  15) 

(June  1) 

(June  1) 

(June  1) 

(June  1) 

20 

20 

18 

15 

10 

7 

5 

4 

3 

2 

2 

1 

24 

21 

17 

17 

12 

9 

43 

41 

50 

34 

22 

14 

35 

52 

62 

36 

35 

28 

59 

58 

63 

57 

48 

25 

The  United  States  leads  all  other  countries  in  the  production  of 
live  stock.  Though  excelled  by  India  in  total  number  of  cattle,  the 
United  States  leads  all  countries  in  beef  production.  We  also  rank 
first  in  the  production  of  milk,  butter,  and  cheese.  We  have  more 
hogs  than  any  other  five  countries  for  which  closely  approximate 
figures  are  available.  ^  We  rank  fourth  in  number  of  sheep,  being 
surpassed  by  Australia,  Russia,  and  Argentina  in  the  order  named. 
We  rank  a  close  second  to  Russia  in  number  of  horses.  We  far  surpass 
any  other  country  in  number  of  mules,  with  more  than  four  times  as 
many  as  Spain,  our  nearest  competitor. 

With  about  6  per  cent  of  the  world's  population  and  5.7  per  cent 
of  the  total  land  area,  we  have  14  per  cent  of  the  world's  cattle,  35 
per  cent  of  the  swine,  8  per  cent  of  the  sheep,  21  per  cent  of  the  horses, 
and  62  per  cent  of  the  mules.  ^  We  produce  70  per  cent  of  the  world's 
corn,  25  per  cent  of  the  oats,  and  13  per  cent  of  the  barley.  ^  Most 
of  these  cereals  is  fed  to  live  stock.  We  lead  all  countries  in  the  pro- 
duction of  com  and  oats.  ^  Our  tremendous  advantage  in  corn  pro- 
duction explains  our  supremacy  in  pork  production,  and  also  largely 
explains  our  high  rank  in  beef  production.  Corn  and  grass  are  the 
b^sic  m.eat-producing  materials  in  America.  Corn  is,  in  fact,  the 
principal  grain  feed  in  this  country  for  all  kinds  of  farm  animals. 


1  Swine  are  known  to  be  numerous  in  China,  but  no  livestock  census  has  been 
taken  in  that  country. 

■■^Computed  from  Table  290,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yeirbook,  1921,  pp.  675-680. 

^O.  E.  Baker:  A  Graphic  Summary  of  American  Agriculture,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
Yearbook,  1921,  p.  408. 

*We  also  lead  in  wheat,  cotton,  and  tobacco. 


24  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

"Corn  is  the  great  energizing,  heat-giving,  fat-furnishing  food  for  the 
animals  of  the  farm.  No  other  cereal  yields,  on  a  given  space  and  with 
a  given  expenditure  of  labor,  so  much  animal  food  in  both  grain  and 
forage.  On  millions  of  farms  successful  animal  husbandry  rests  upon 
this  imperial  grain  and  forage  plant."  ^ 

Meat  export  countries. — The  export  trade  of  the  meat-surplus 
countries  amounts  to  less  than  8  per  cent  of  the  entire  production  of 
the  world.  -  Over  92  per  cent  of  the  world's  meat  production  is 
consumed  in  the  countries  in  which  it  is  produced.  The  principal 
meat  export  countries  are  the  United  States,  Argentina,  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  Uruguay,  Canada,  Brazil,  and  Denmiark,  especially  the 
first  four.  Argentina  largely  dominates  the  world's  beef  export  trade. 
The  United  States  contributes  the  great  bulk  of  export  pork  products. 
Mutton  exports  originate  almost  entirely  in  New  Zealand,  Australia, 
and  Argentina.  Denmark  and  Canada  export  considerable  high-class 
bacon,  and  Uruguay  and  Brazil  make  contributions  to  beef  exports. 

Meat  import  countries. — Great  Britain  is  the  leading  meat-im- 
porting country;  Germany  normally  holds  second  place;  and  the 
Netherlands  rank  third.  Other  meat-importing  nations  are  Austria- 
Hungary,  Belgium,  Cuba,  Denmark,  France,  Italy,  Norway,  Russia, 
Spain,  Sweden,  and  Switzerland.  Imports  of  live  animals  are  rela- 
tively small  and  consist  largely  of  shipments  across  boundaries  to 
near-by  markets. 

The  "meat  eaters." — Half  of  the  people  of  the  world  eat  little 
meat.  Meat  is  consumed  in  greatest  amounts  per  capita  in  the 
countries  named  in  the  two  preceding  paragraphs,  to  which  may  be 
added  Greece  and  Portugal.  The  annual  per  capita  consumption 
ranges  from  over  200  pounds  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand  to  about 
40  pounds  in  Portugal.  ^  The  United  States  ranks  third  with  about 
164  pounds,  of  which  14  pounds  is  lard.  , 

Brief  survey  of  North  American  live-stock  industry.-i/-The  fore- 
most live-stock  producing  region  in  the  United  States  and  in  the  world 
is  the  corn-belt  region  of  the  Central  West,  including  the  seven  states, 
Iowa,  Illinois,  Nebraska,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Indiana,  and  Ohio,  and 
parts  of  South  Dakota,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Oklahoma, 
Kentucky,  and  Tennessee.  This  region  leads  all  others  in  beef  produc- 
tion and  pork  production,  holds  a  prominent  place  in  dairying,  has 
about  half  of  the  horses  of  the  country,  and  produces  over  70  per  cent 
of  the  mules.  Many  cattle  and  sheep  are  brought  here  for  feeding. 
The  fattening  of  meat  animals  on  grain  rations  is  largely  confined  to 


^Henry  and  Morrison:  Feeds  and  Feeding,  1915,  p.  149. 

2 George  K.  Holmes:  Meat  Situation  in  the  United  States,   U.  S.   Dept.  Agr. 
Rpt.  109,  p.  97. 

3U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Rpt.  109,  pp.  131-133. 

HOnKTY  LIBRARY 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  25 

this  area.     Most  of  the  large  Hve-stock  markets  of  the  United  States 
are  located  within  the  corn  belt. 

The  western  range  region,  including  all  territory  west  of  the  Mis- 
souri river,  enjoys  special  advantages  in  extensive  areas  of  cheap  pas- 
ture lands,  leads  in  mutton  and  wool  production,  produces  a  large 
quantity  of  beef,  and  supplies  the  corn  belt  with  large  numbers  of 
feeder  steers  and  feeder  lambs.  With  the  exception  of  the  Pacific  coast 
region,  the  western  range  states  raise  comparatively  few  dairy  cattle 
and  hogs. 

In  the  Great  Lakes  and  Appalachian  region,  including  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  the  New  England 
states,  the  breeding  of  dairy  cattle  and  production  of  dairy  products  is 
practiced  on  an  extensive  scale. 

The  cotton-belt  region  of  the  South,  extending  from  central  Texas 
to  the  Atlantic  coast  and  from  the  corn  belt  to  the  Gulf  coast,  has 
given  attention  during  recent  years  to  improvement  in  live  stock  and 
to  increased  production,  particularly  with  cattle  and  hogs.  Texas  has 
long  been  noted  as  the  foremost  beef  cattle  breeding  ground,  and  ranks 
first  among  all  states  in  numbers  of  beef  cattle  and  sheep.  Georgia 
has  attained  considerable  prominence  in  the  production  of  pork.  In 
the  cotton  belt  the  mule  is  the  favorite  work  animal,  though  most  of 
the  mules  used  in  this  region  are  produced  in  states  north  of  the  cotton 
belt.     Nine  southern  states  have  more  mules  than  horses. 

Canada,  with  about  0.5  percent  of  the  world's  population  and  6.9 
per  cent  of  the  land  area,  has  3.8  per  cent  of  the  world's  horses,  2.3  per 
cent  of  the  hogs,  2.1  per  cent  of  the  cattle,  and  0.8  per  cent  of  the  sheep. ' 
Among  80  countries  for  which  statistics  are  available,  Canada  ranks 
7th  in  horses,  10th  in  hogs,  14th  in  cattle,  and  28th  in  sheep.  Bacon- 
type  hogs  are  produced  extensively.  Ontario  and  Quebec  far  surpass 
the  other  Canadian  provinces  in  numbers  of  swine  and  are  also  out- 
standing in  numbers  of  dairy  cows.  Ontario  is  far  in  the  lead  in  cattle 
other  than  dairy  cows,  with  Quebec  and  Alberta  second  and  third. 
Many  communities  in  Canada,  especially  in  Ontario,  are  noted  for  high 
average  excellence  of  all  kinds  of  farm  live  stock. 

Mexico  is  a  country  with  great  possibilities  in  live-stock  produc- 
tion which  may  be  realized  at  some  future  time  if  long-continued  war- 
fare gives  way  to  peace  and  industry.  Much  of  the  area  of  Mexico 
is  elevated  above  the  tick  line  and  formerly  many  millions  of  cattle 
were  produced,  especially  in  the  northern  states.  No  recent  official 
live-stock  statistics  for  Mexico  have  been  published. 

^x^he  stockman's  success  depends  very  largely  upon  the  degree  to 
which  his  animals  meet  with  favor  on  the  live-stock  market.     If  he  is 


^Computed  from  Table  290,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  pp.  675-680. 


26  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

to  make  a  financial  success  of  his  business,  he  must  produce  what  the 
narket  wants.  Far  too  many  feeders  of  hve  stock  lack  acquaintance 
with  market  demands.  Far  too  many  breeders  devote  themselves  to 
a  breed  simply  because  it  satisfies  a  hobby  and  because  the  breed  ap- 
peals to  their  fancy,  rather  than  because  they  see  in  their  animals  any 
special  utility.  Unless  a  breed  of  beef  cattle  makes  possible  the  pro- 
duction of  better  beef  fcr  the  market;  unless  a  breed  of  swine  is  fostered 
because  in  it  is  seen  the  possibility  of  improving  the  quality  or  cheapen- 
ing the  cost  of  pork;  unless  a  breed  of  draft  horses  is  really  useful  when 
put  to  the  test  in  the  collar;  then  such  breeds  have  little  excuse  for  their 
existence,  and  those  who  foster  them  must  sooner  or  later  suffer  finan- 
cially for  their  efforts.  Both  the  breeder  and  the  feeder  must  know  the 
demands  of  the  open  market  and  keep  them  always  in  mind. 

The  great  live-stock  breeders  of  the  past  were  intensely  practical; 
they  never  overlooked  the  market  requirements  of  the  kind  of  animals 
they  bred.  No  animal  m.et  with  favor  in  their  eyes  unless  such  favor 
V  as  earned  by  meat  upon  the  back,  milk  in  the  pail,  weight  and  quality 
cf  wool,  pounds  gained  for  pounds  of  feed  consum.ed,  or  som.e  other  per- 
formance of  practical  value.  With  them  it  was  a  question  of  ultimately 
furnishing  better  animals  for  the  market  or  lowering  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion. It  must  be  just  so  with  the  master  breeders  of  the  present  and 
future. 

These  pages  aim  to  familiarize  the  reader  with  the  types  of  farm 
animals,  market  demands,  and  market  classes  of  live  stock,  such  knowl- 
edge being  fundamiCntal  in  all  live-stock  work  and  study,  and  valuable 
not  only  to  breeders  and  feeders,  but  to  all  persons  who  buy  and  use 
animals. 


PART I-CATTLE 


INTRODUCTION 

"The  cow  is  the  most  essential  of  all  man's  four-footed 
friends.  Strike  beef  and  milk,  cream  and  butter  from  the  human 
dietary,  and  you  have  dealt  a  blow  at  civilization  itself.  Banish 
cattle  from  the  grazing  grounds  of  the  temperate  zones,  and  you 
have  obliterated  one  of  the  world's  chief  sources  of  wealth.  Elim- 
inate the  herds  from  the  pastures  of  both  hemispheres,  and  you 
are  on  the  road  to  a  paralyzing  lost  fertility.  Drive  cattle  from 
the  ranges  of  North  and  South  America,  and  you  have  turned 
back  millions  of  semi-arid  acres  into  a  wilderness  more  or  less 
abandoned  of  God  and  man." — Alvin  H.  Sanders  in  the  Breed- 
er s  Gazette.  '■ 

The  United  States  leads  all  other  countries  in  the  production  of 
beef  and  dairy  products.  Formerly  we  produced  a  considerable  sur- 
plus of  beef,  butter,  and  cheese  which  we  exported  to  the  value  of 
many  millions  of  dollars  annually,  but  these  exports  have  declined  to  a 
marked  degree,  and  though  greatly  revived  during  the  World  War, 
they  have  again  sharply  declined.  Imports  of  these  products  have  in- 
creased.    Note  the  following  table:  * 

Imports  and  exports  of  beef  and  dairy  products 

Imports  Exports 

Cattle — Number: 

.      1900 181,006  397,286 

1921 329,974  145,623 

Beef — Pounds:  > 

1900 2,500,000  857,542,000 

1921 51,666,000  228,969,000 

Butter — Pounds: 

1880 487,120  39,236,658 

1921 18,558,388  8,014,737 

Cheese^Pounds: 

1880 2,737,186  127,553,907 

1921 26,866,000  11,772,000 

'  Includes  veal  and  edible  ofTal. 

The  decline  in  our  beef  and  dairy  exports  is  chiefly  due  to  a  popula- 
tion increasing  at  such  a  rapid  rate  that  the  increase  in  home  produc- 
tion of  food  does  not  keep  parallel  with  it.  The  United  States  had  7 
millions  of  people  in  1810,  17  millions  in  1840,  39  millions  in  1870,  76 
millions  in  1900,  92  millions  in  1910,  and  106  millions  in  1920.  Further- 
more, only  26.3  per  cent  of  the  population  having  census  occupations 

iNov.  30,  1922,  p.  721. 

^Compiled  from  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbooks;  Handbook  of  Dairy  Statistics, 
1922. 

27 


28  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

is  agricultural,  and  the  percentage  declined  from  83  per  cent  in  1820  to 
77.5  per  cent  in  1840,  47  in  1870,  35  in  1900,  and  33.1  in  1910.  The 
consumers  of  food-stuffs  in  America  have  increased  at  a  much  more 
rapid  rate  than  the  producers.  The  producer  of  live  stock  in  this  coun- 
try is  assured  of  ready  sale  for  all  his  products  at  remunerative  prices. 
lythe  special  advantages  of  cattle  as  compared  to  other  kinds  of 
live  stock  on  the  farm  may  be  noted  as  follows: 

1.  Cattle  consume  larger  quantities  and  make  more  efficient  use 
of  coarse  and  low-grade  roughages  produced  on  the  farm,  such  as  coarse 
hay  and  com  stalks  and  the  coarser  pastures  of  ranker  growth.  No 
other  farm  animal  will  utilize  so  much  of  what  otherwise  would  be  waste 
on  the  farm. 

2.  Cattle  can  use  the  total  production  of  grains  and  roughages  on 
the  average  farm,  with  or  without  the  purchase  of  other  feeds,  more 
efficiently  than  any  other  kind  of  live  stock. 

3.  Cattle  can  be  used  profitably  on  low,  wet  land  unsuited  for 
crops  or  for  other  kinds  of  live  stock.  Cattle  also  approach  sheep  in 
adaptability  to  arid  or  rough  land  not  suited  to  crop  production. 

4.  Cattle  on  the  farm  greatly  help  to  equalize  the  distribution  of 
farm  labor  throughout  the  year.  Excepting  cows  that  are  milked, 
cattle  require  little  attention  during  the  summer  and  fall  pasture  season 
when  crops  need  attention.  During  winter  and  early  spring,  farmers 
can  employ  their  time  to  advantage  in  caring  for  the  breeding  herd, 
wintering  stockers,  or  fattening  steers. 

5.  Cattle  products  are  less  subject  to  seasonal  fluctuations  in 
supply  and  price  than  those  of  any  other  kind  of  live  stock. 

6.  Beef  cattle  require  less  labor  for  their  care  than  do  other  farm 
animals. 

7.  Dairy  products  remove  less  fertility  from  the  farm  than  do 
other  major  farm  products.        / 

The  three  types  of  cattle.y-Experience  has  shown  that  only  a  cer- 
tain kind  or  type  of  cow  can  produce  a  large  flow  of  milk,  and  that 
quite  a  different  kind  or  type  is  necessary  for  efficient  beef  production. 
The  high-class  dairy  cow  possesses  certain  well-marked  characters 
which  make  her  useful  as  a  machine  for  producing  milk,  and  we  call 
this  combination  of  characters  dainj  type.  Likewise,  the  high-class 
beef  animal  has  certain  well-marked  characters  which  indicate  efficiency 
in  converting  feed  into  flesh  rather  than  into  milk,  and  we  call  this 
combination  of  characters  heef  type.  Some  breeders  have  endeavored 
to  establish  what  is  called  a  dual-purpose  type  of  cattle.  They  believe 
there  is  need  of  a  cow  that  can  produce  both  beef  and  milk,  and  they 
have,  therefore,  tried  to  combine  dairy  type  and  beef  type  as  nearly  as 
possible.     The  dual-purpose  cow  does  not  give  as  much  milk  as  the 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  29 

dairy  cow,  nor  does  she  make  as  much  beef  as  the  beef  cow.  At  present 
the  demand  for  dual-purpose  cattle  is  comparatively  limited,  but  some 
authorities  have  predicted  that  many  farms  will  ultimately  adopt  the 
dual-purpose  type  as  the  one  most  profitable. 

Definition  of  type. — A  type  is  an  ideal  or  standard  of  perfection, 
combining  all  the  characters  which  contribute  to  the  animal's  value  and 
efficiency  for  the  purpose  specified.  Tjrpe  provides  the  animal  with  the 
proper  form  and  structure  for  the  kind  of  work  or  production  desired. 
For  example,  if  the  specified  purpose  is  beef  production,  then  a  rec- 
tangular, broad-topped  form  and  abundant  muscling  are  among  the 
more  important  characters  necessary  to  successful  production.  If  the 
specified  purpose  is  milk  production,  then  a  wedge-shaped,  angular 
form  and  a  large  udder  are  among  the  important  essentials.  In  both 
the  beef  animal  and  the  dairy  animal,  a  straight,  strong  back  contrib- 
utes to  the  value  of  the  animal,  though  it  may  or  may  not  contribute 
to  the  animal's  efficiency  in- production. 

The  breeds  of  cattle.J^ Various  breeds  of  cattle  have  been  evolved 
to  meet  the  demands  for  each  of  the  three  types  of  cattle.  Each  breed 
has  its  distinctive  and  special  features  not  found  in  individuals  of  other 
breeds.  These  special  characters  constitute  what  is  called  the 
breed  type.  For  example,  there  are  six  breeds  of  beef  cattle  all  of  which 
possess  beef  type,  yet  each  breed  is  distinctive  in  certain  points  which 
make  up  the  breed  type. 

Years  ago,  various  groups  of  men  in  different  localities  under 
different  conditions  and  with  different  sorts  of  unimproved  cattle  took 
up  beef  production,  or  dairying,  or  a  combination  of  the  two.  In  this 
way  originated  the  various  breeds  of  the  three  types  of  cattle  as  we 
know  them  today.  Competition  does  not  narrow  each  type  down  to  a 
single  best  breed,  because  no  one  breed  is  best  under  all  conditions  of 
soil,  climate,  and  feed  supply. 

-f^he  classification  of  the  breeds  according  to  type,  and  the  number 
of  registered  purebreds  of  each  breed  in  the  United  States,  as  shown  by 
the  1920  census,  are  as  follows: 


30  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Type                                              Breed  Number 

Shorthorn 416,995 

Hereford 405,582 

RppF  Typp                           I  Aberdeen-Angus 108,524 

liEEF   lYPE ^Polled  Shorthorn 61,764 

Polled  Hereford {*) 

Galloway 7,225 

All  other  ' 63,409 


Total 1,063,499 

iHolstein-Friesian 528,621 

Jersey 231,834 

Guernsey 79,446 

Ayrshire 30,509 

[Brown  Swiss 8,283 

All  other  2 37,909 

Total 916,602 

[Red  Polled' {*) 

DuAL-PuRPOSB  Type  ...    -I  Milking  Shorthorn (*) 

1  Devon 1,413 


All  breeds 1,981,514 

'  Probably  includes  Polled  Hereforda  and  some  Red  Polled. 

2  Includas  Dutch  Belted,  French  Canadian,  and  Kerry,  and  may  include  Milking  Shorthorns,  Polled 
Jerseys,  and  some  Red  Polled. 

'  The  1920  census  did  not  make  a  separate  count  of  Red  Polled  cattle,  but  they  are  much  more  numer- 
ous than  Milking  Shorthorns  or  Devons. 

*  Not  separately  reported. 

Definitions  of  Cattle  Terms  i/ 

Bull. — Breeding  male,  any  age. 

Cow. — Mature  ferrale. 

Heifer.— A  female  urder  three  years  old,  and  usually  one  that  has 
not  produced  offspring. 

Calf, — Young  animal,  usually  under  one  year  old. 

Steer. — Unsexed  male,  castrated  when  a  calf.  The  best  age  to 
castrate  calves  is  six  to  eight  weeks  old,  although  they  may  be  castrated 
from  a  week  to  six  months  old.  The  longer  castration  is  delayed  the 
greater  is  the  risk  of  loss  from  the  operation  and  the  greater  the  liability 
of  coarseness  developing  in  head,  neck,  and  forequarters. 

Stag. — Unsexed  male,  castrated  when  mature  or  so  far  advanced 
toward  maturity  that  masculinity  is  plainly  evident  in  head,  neck,  and 
forequarters.  Well-developed  masculine  character  constitutes  coarse- 
ness in  a  market  animal. 

Spayed  heifer. — Unsexed  heifer.  Spaying  is  performed  by  making 
an  incision  in  front  of  the  left  hip  and  removing  the  ovaries.  The  scar 
left  after  the  operation  is  about  the  only  sure  method  of  identifying 
such  heifers. 

Free-martin. — An  imperfectly-sexed  heifer  born  twin  with  a  bull. 
They  are  infertile.  All  heifers  born  twin  with  bulls  are  not  free- 
martins. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  31 

Polled. — Naturally  hornless.  The  Aberdeen- Angus,  Galloway,  and 
Red  Polled  breeds  are  polled  and  produce  polled  offspring.  The  Polled 
Shorthorn  and  Polled  Hereford  breeds  are  polled  and  usually  produce 
polled  offspring.  The  term  "mulley"  is  sometimes  applied  to  polled 
cattle,  more  especially  to  those  not  representative  of  any  particular 
breed. 

Scurs. — Flat  or  rounded  buttons  of  horn  sometimes  present  on  the 
heads  of  polled  animals  and  usually  attached  to  the  skin  rather  than  to 
the  skull. 

Dehorned. — ^Made  hornless  by  the  application  of  caustic  potash 
which  destroys  the  horn-forming  tissue  of  the  young  calf  before  the 
horns  have  appeared,  or  by  clipping  or  sawing  off  the  horns  of  older 
animals.  The  former  method,  properly  practiced,  is  simpler,  easier, 
safer,  and  gives  a  neater  appearance. 

Show  Yard  Classification  by  Ages 

Beef  cattle. — The  base  dates  for  classifying  beef  cattle  by  ages  are 
January  1  and  September  1,  and  the  classes  by  ages  are  as  follows: 

Junior  calf  class. — The  animals  eligible  to  this  class  are  those 
calved  on  or  after  January  1  of  the  year  shown. 

Senior  calf  class. — Calved  between  (and  including)  September  1 
and  December  31  of  the  preceding  year. 

Junior  yearling  class. — Calved  between  January  1  and  August  31 
of  the  preceding  year. 

Senior  yearling  class. — Calved  between  September  1  and  December 
31  of  the  second  preceding  year. 

Two-year-old  class. — Calved  between  September  '1  of  the  third 
preceding  year  and  August  31  of  the  second  preceding  year. 

Three  years  old  and  over  (aged)  class. — Calved  before  September  1 
of  the  third  preceding  year. 

For  example,  during  the  summer,  fall,  and  winter  show  season  of 
1923,  junior  calves  are  those  calved  on  or  after  January  1,  1923;  senior 
calves,  those  calved  between  (and  including)  September  1  and  Decem- 
ber 31,  1922;  junior  yearlings,  between  January  1  and  August  31,  1922; 
senior  yearlings,  between  September  1  and  December  31,  1921;  two- 
year-olds,  between  September  1,  1920,  and  August  31,  1921;  and  aged 
animals  three  years  old  and  over  are  those  calved  before  September  1, 
1920. 

Junior  champion. — Best  animal  under  two  years. 

Senior  champion. — Best  animal  two  years  old  or  over. 

Champion. — Best  animal  any  age. 


32  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Grand  champion. — Best  animal  .any  age  or  breed.  The  term 
"grand  champion"  is  also  frequently  applied  to  champions. 

Dairy  cattle.— The  classes  by  ages  for  showing  dairy  cattle  are  the 
same  as  for  beef  cattle,  but  the  base  dates  are  February  1  and  August  1. 
At  many  shows  a  class  is  provided  for  three-year-old  cows,  and  where 
this  is  done  the  aged  cow  class  includes  those  four  years  old  and  over. 
Some  of  the  larger  shows  also  provide  a  separate  class  for  four-year-old 
cows,  and  the  aged  cow  class  then  includes  those  five  years  old  and  over. 

Dual-purpose  cattle. — Red  Polled  and  Devon  cattle  are  classified 
by  ages  the  same  as  beef  cattle.  Milking  Shorthorns  are  usually  classi- 
fied by  ages  the  same  as  dairy  cattle. 


CHAPTER  I 
BEEF  TYPE 

The  following  description  applies  particularly  to  the  fattened  steer. 
Special  or  additional  features  of  type  which  should  characterize  the 
beef  bull  and  the  beef  cow  will  receive  attention  in  another  chapter. 
It  should  be  understood,  however,  that  all  good  beef  animals — steers, 
heifers,  cows,  and  bulls — are  similar  in  the  essentials  of  beef  type;  there- 
fore, the  description  given  here  applies  in  most  respects  to  all  classes  of 
beef  animals.^,  ^,    .,. 

General  appearance.V^When  correct  in  form  and  fatness,  the  beef 
animal  presents  a  massive,  blocky  appearance  from  every  angle  of  view. 
As  viewed  from  the  side,  the  body  is  rectangular,  very  deep,  and  short 
from  shoulder  to  hip.  The  body  is  very  wide,  and  the  legs  are  short 
and  placed  squarely  under  the  body.  Two  dimensions  of  the  beef 
animal  should  be  great — width  and  depth;  the  third  dimension,  length, 
should  be  relatively  small.  There  should  be  great  smoothness  of  out- 
line everywhere,  all  the  parts  being  uniformly  developed  and  so  blended 
as  to  form  a  symmetrical  and  balanced  animal.  Along  the  top,  the 
ideal  animal  is  uniformly  broad,  the  more  width  the  better.  From  a 
side  view,  the  top  line  and  underline  are  straight  and  parallel.  A  full- 
ness of  outline  is  presented  everywhere. 

An  animal  showing  too  much  length  of  middle  is  referred  to  as 
"rangy,"  while  animals  standing  high  off  the  ground  on  long  legs  are 
termed  "leggy."  The  head  should  be  short  and  broad,  and  the  neck 
short  and  thick.  Such  a  head  and  neck  are  associated  or  correlated 
with  the  desired  type  of  body.  Rangy,  leggy  animals  usually  have 
long,  narrow  heads  and  long,  thin  necks.  With  only  the  heads  and 
necks  of  a  number  of  beef  animals  in  view,  the  best  animals  may  be 
picked  out  with  reasonable  certainty  by  the  general  proportions  of  the 
heads  and  necks.  A  straight-edge  laid  against  the  side  of  a  beef  an- 
imal should  touch  the  shoulder  and  hindquarter  and  all  points  between 
them. 

The  head  should  be  of  medium  size,  short,  and  broad,  with  a  broad 
muzzle,  indicating  capacity  for  grazing  and  feeding.  The  nostrils 
should  be  large,  indicating  capacity  for  breathing  and  hence  a  good 
constitution.  The  face  should  be  short  and  from  a  side  view  the  line 
of  the  face  should  be  straight  or  show  a  slight  inward  curve  or  dish 
from  eyes  to  muzzle.  The  eyes  should  be  wide  apart,  large,  prominent, 
bright,  clear,  and  indicative  of  a  quiet  disposition.     A  quiet  expression 

33 


34 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


of  the  eyes  means  a  quiet,  contented  feeder  that  will  transform  feed 
into  flesh ;  a  nervous,  restless  expression  is  evidence  of  an  unsatisfactory- 
feeder  that  will  neither  consume  enough  feed  nor  store  up  the  energy 
of  the  feed  consumed,  but  waste  it  in  nervousness  and  too  much  moving 
about.  The  forehead  should  be  very  wide.  The  jaws  should  be  broad 
and  well  muscled.  If  horns  are  present  they  should  not  be  heavy  and 
coarse,  but  of  medium  size  and  of  good  shape  and  proportions,  tapering 
evenly  to  their  tips.  The  ears  should  be  of  medium  size  and  fine  tex- 
ture. The  entire  head  should  be  clean-cut,  all  lines  being  sharply 
defined,  giving  a  well-bred  appearance,  sometimes  referred  to  as 
"character." 


36— |v 


1. 

Muzzle 

11. 

2. 

Mouth 

12 

3. 

Nostril 

13 

4. 

Face 

14. 

5. 

Eye 

15 

6. 

Forehead 

16 

7. 

Ear 

17 

8. 

Poll 

18 

9. 

Tongue  root 

19 

10. 

Brisket 

20 

Fig.  2. — Points  of  the  steer. 

Dewlap  21.  Knee 

Neck  22.  Shank 

Crest  23.  Foot 

Shoulder  vein  24.  Fore  flank 

15.     Point  of  shoulder  25.  Crops 

Top  of  shoulders  26.  Back 

Shoulder  27.  Ribs 

Fore-rib  28.  Paunch  or  belly    39 

Elbow  29.  Loin 

Arm  30.  Hip  or  hook 


31. 

Rump 

32. 

Tail-head 

33. 

Thigh 

34. 

Hock 

35. 

Tail 

36. 

Switch 

38. 

Cod 

39. 

Hind  flank 

40. 

Dew  claw 

The  neck  should  be  short,  thick,  and  muscular.  The  throat  should 
be  neat  and  trim,  while  at  the  shoulders  the  neck  should  show  depth  and 
fullness.  The  line  where  the  neck  and  shoulder  join  is  called  the 
"shoulder  vein,"  and  we  like  this  part  to  be  filled  out  plump  and  full. 
A  long  neck  lacking  in  thickness  is  frequently  found,  and  it  is  un- 
desirable chiefly  because  it  is  associated  with  a  rangy  type  of  body. 
When  the  animal  is  standing  in  natural  position,  with  the  head  up,  the 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


35 


top  line  of  the  neck  should  be  slightly  arched  and  the  poll  of  the  head 
should  be  slightly  higher  than  the  top  of  the  shoulders. 

The  shoulders  should  be  very  smooth,  blending  perfectly  with  the 
rest  of  the  body.  This  conformation  is  secured  when  the  shoulder  blade 
lies  snugly  against  the  ribs  beneath,  and  is  covered  over  with  a  uni- 
formly thick  layer  of  flesh.  The  top  of  the  shoulders  should  not  be 
sharp  and  fine,  nor  yet  so  wide  that  the  tops  of  the  shoulder  blades  are 
prominent  and  outstanding,  but  should  be  moderately  wide  and  nicely 
rounded  over  with  flesh.  Rough,  angular  shoulders,  unevenly  covered, 
are  among  the  most  common  defects  of  beef  cattle.  When  the  shoulders 
are  not  properly  laid  in,  but  are  wide  and  open,  the  appearance  of  the 


32.  Tail-head 

33.  Thighs 


Fig.  3. — Points  of  the  steer 

34.     Hocks  36.     Switch 


38.     Cod 


35.     Tail 


37.     Twist 


animal  is  injured,  the  fleshing  over  the  shoulder  is  not  taken  on  properly, 
and,  when  slaughtered,  the  carcass  lacks  the  smooth,  tidy  appearance 
so  much  desired.  A  prominent  shoulder  also  causes  the  development 
behind  it  to  appear  insufficient. 

The  brisket  and  chest  are  highly  important.  The  former  should 
carry  forward  prominent  and  wide,  and  be  well  fleshed,  yet  neat, 
presenting  a  full,  well-developed,  and  trim  appearance.  The  chest, 
which  lies  between  the  shoulders  and  immediately  behind  them,  ought 
to  be  very  wide  and  deep.  Too  much  width  and  depth  are  never  found. 
A  full,  deep  chest  with  large  heart-girth  indicates  a  rugged  sort  of 
animal  possessed  of  much  constitutional  vigor.  The  floor  of  the  chest 
should  be  wide,  as  shown  by  the  distance  between  the  two  fore  legs, 


36  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

provided  width  at  this  point  is  not  due  merely  to  prominent,  open 
shoulders  which  set  the  fore  legs  wide  apart.  The  fore-rib,  lying  just 
behind  the  shoulder,  should  not  be  flat,  but  should  arch  boldly  so  that 
no  flatness  or  depression  exists  immediately  behind  the  shoulder. 
Many  beef  animals  present  a  hollowness  or  flatness  of  fore-rib  which 
detracts  much  from  the  desired  smoothness  and  evenness  of  conforma- 
tion, and  reduces  the  chest  capacity.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see 
that  the  animal  carries  down  deep  and  full  at  the  front  flanks  just 
behind  the  elbows.  The  butcher  cares  nothing  for  a  beef  animal's 
constitution,  but  every  intelligent  feeder  places  great  emphasis  on  the 
depth  and  width  of  chest,  which  indicate  to  him  that  the  steer  will  be 
a  good  doer  in  the  feed-lot.  Briefly  summing  up  these  points,  we  may 
say  that  the  forequarters  should  be  smoothly  laid,  smoothly  and  thick- 
ly fleshed,  and  very  wide  and  deep,  showing  no  lack  of  constitution 
anywhere. 

The  front  legs  should  be  short  and  placed  squarely  under  the 
animal.  They  should  come  straight  down,  and  the  toes  should  point 
straight  forward.  For  reasons  already  given,  the  fore  legs  should  be 
set  well  apart.  The  arm  should  be  wide  and  muscular  at  its  attach- 
ment to  the  shoulder.  Refinement  of  bone  and  cleanness  of  joints  are 
evidences  of  quality,  whereas  rough,  coarse  animals  have  heavy  joints 
and  big  shank  bones. 

The  back  carries  great  weight,  and  it  is  desirable  that  it  be  straight 
and  strong.  When  some  people  refer  to  the  back  they  include  the 
entire  top  of  the  animal  from  shoulders  to  tail.  Others  mean  the  top 
from  shoulders  to  hips.  The  score  card  restricts  the  meaning  of  this 
term  to  that  portion  of  the  top  lying  between  the  shoulders  and  the 
last  rib,  which  is  some  distance  in  front  of  the  hip.  In  this  description 
we  shall  use  the  word  in  the  score-card  sense.  The  back  furnishes  one 
of  the  high-priced  cuts  of  beef  and  always  receives  critical  attention  in 
judging.  It  is  important,  first  of  all,  that  the  back  be  very  wide  in 
order  that  it  may  carry  the  maximum  amount  of  meat.  Beef  cattle 
are  never  criticized  for  too  much  width  in  this  part.  Width  is  secured 
when  the  ribs  arch  boldly  from  the  spinal  column;  if  the  ribs  are  not 
arched,  the  back  must  necessarily  be  narrow. 

Fully  as  important  as  the  width  of  back  is  the  depth  of  flesh  which 
covers  this  part.  When  touched  with  the  fingers,  great  depth  and 
mellowness  should  be  found.  No  mere  beauty  of  outline  or  stylishness 
of  appearance  can  ever  make  up  for  lack  of  fleshing  in  a  beef  animal. 
The  flesh  must  be  there.  Dimplesj  or  ties,  ^  rough  spots,  or  uneven 
patches  of  fat  detract  from  the  value  because  the  carcass  of  such  an 


'This  refers  to  an  adhesion  of  the  hide  to  the  backbone  which  prevents  a  cov- 
ering of  fat  at  that  point,  causing  a  depression  or  dimple  known  as  a  "tie." 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


37 


animal  will  be  rough  in  appearance  and  uneven  in  its  covering  of  flesh. 
If  a  wide  back  furnishes  greater  space  for  meat  than  does  a  narrow  one, 
then  length  of  back  might  be  advised  for  the  same  reason.  But  a  long 
back  is  not  wanted  because  one  of  the  outstanding  features  of  correct 
beef  type  is  compactness,  by  which  is  meant  shortness  from  head  to 
tail,  and  especially  shortness  from  shoulders  to  hips.  We  naturally 
expect  the  back  to  be  short,  because  length  there  is  associated  with 
the  undesirable  rangy  type  of  animal  too  often  found. 

The  ribs  should  not  only  be  well  sprung,  but  they  should  also 
carry  down  with  much  depth  to  make  a  roomy  or  capacious  body.    A 


Fig.  4. — A  model  bullock.  Black  Ruler,  Aberdeen-Angus  senior  yearling  steer, 
grand  champion  at  the  1920  International  Live  Stock  Show.  Bred,  fed,  and  shown 
by  Purdue  University.  Weight  1,340  pounds.  Sold  for  $1.75  per  pound.  Note 
his  rectangular  and  blocky  form,  short  legs,  and  the  wealth  of  flesh  spread  evenly 
over  all  parts.  Note  the  good  head,  short  neck,  neat  brisket,  full  shoulder  vein, 
smooth  shoulder,  deep  rib,  excellent  quality,  and  stylish  appearance. 

wide,  deep  middle  is  essential  to  digestive  capacity.  Cattle  have 
thirteen  pairs  of  ribs.  In  beef  cattle  they  should  be  placed  close  to- 
gether along  the  sides,  and  the  last  pair  should  be  as  close  to  the  hips 
as  possible.  This  provides  a  frame-work  upon  which  the  fleshing  may 
be  smoothly  laid.  When  there  is  much  space  between  the  ribs,  a 
smooth  fleshing  i§  not  often  found;  the  position  of  the  ribs  will  be 
marked  by  ridges  and  there  will  be  hollows  between  them.     When  the 


38  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

distance  is  great  between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip,  it  is  impossible  to 
get  that  part  filled  out  smoothly;  instead  there  will  be  a  large  "hunger 
hollow"  which  detracts  much  from  the  appearance.  Once  more,  there- 
fore, the  necessity  for  compactness  (shortness)  of  middle  is  emphasized. 

The  side  of  the  animal  should  be  smooth  and  even,  and  the  side 
line  should  be  straight  from  shoulder  to  hindquarter.  The  fleshing 
over  the  ribs  should  be  thick  and  smooth,  and  the  hind  flank  should  be 
well  filled  with  flesh  so  that  when  the  hand  is  placed  under  it  and  lifted, 
it  is  found  to  be  thick,  full,  and  heavy.  If  the  front  and  hind  flanks 
carry  down  properly,  the  underline  will  be  straight,  as  it  ought  to  be. 

At  this  point  it  is  well  to  state  that  though  the  middle  of  a  beef 
animal  should  be  wide  and  deep,  a  distended  condition  of  the  paunch 
is  not  desirable.  When  this  occurs,  the  animal  is  referred  to  as 
"paunchy."  The  lines  of  the  middle,  both  at  the  sides  and  along  the 
belly,  should  be  straight  and  trim,  giving  a  neat,  tidy  appearance. 
Given  good  arch  and  depth  of  rib,  a  steer  may  be  straight  and  trim  in 
his  middle  without  sacrificing  proper  feeding  capacity,  and  such  ani- 
mals suit  the  butcher  much  better  than  paunchy  ones,  because  an 
excessive  paunch  means  much  waste  when  the  animal  is  slaughtered. 

The  loin  is  that  portion  of  the  top  lying  between  the  back  and  the 
hips.  It  has  no  ribs  below  it,  but  consists  of  large  muscles,  affording 
the  very  choicest  cuts  of  the  entire  carcass — the  porterhouse  and 
sirloin.  The  loin  should  be  very  wide  and  very  thickly  fleshed  to  afford 
as  high  development  of  this  part  as  possible.  The  covering  of  flesh 
should  also  be  smooth  and  firm.  We  like  the  loin  to  be  thickly  padded 
and  plumped  up  with  muscle  having  the  proper  degree  of  fatness. 
Such  a  loin  may  be  described  as  a  "live"  loin — one  that  exhibits  resil- 
iency or  springiness  when  handled.  A  loin  that  is  flat  and  that  handles 
soft  and  "dead"  is  deficient  in  lean  meat  and  has  too  much  fat.  The 
loin-edge  is  sometimes  rough  and  patchy,  due  to  an  uneven  distribu- 
tion^ of  the  fat,  whereas  it  should  be  smooth  and  even. 

The  hips  should  be  laid  in  snugly,  and  nicely  covered  over  with 
flesh.  The  eye  should  not  be  able  to  locate  the  hip  of  a  well-fattened 
animal;  only  when  the  hands  are  used  should  the  point  of  the  hip  be 
possible  of  location.  This  helps  to  give  the  smoothness  desired  in  both 
the  living  animal  and  the  carcass  which  it  ultimately  yields.  Wide 
hips  cannot  be  covered  over  with  flesh,  and  the  animal  has  a  rough 
and  ragged  appearance. 

The  rump  is  the  top  between  hips  and  tail-head.  It  should  be  level 
so  as  to  carry  out  the  top  line  straight  and  square  to  the  end  of  the 
body.  Some  animals  droop  in  the  rump,  and  some  rise  prominently; 
in  each  case  the  conformation  is  faulty.  The  rump  should  be  as  long 
as  possible  and  as  wide  as  the  rest  of  the  top.    This  permits  a  maxj- 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  39 

mum  fleshing  and  provides  the  most  attractive  form.  The  width 
should  be  carried  as  uniformly  as  possible  from  hips  to  end  of  rump. 
As  the  tail-head  is  approached,  there  is  bound  to  be  some  rounding  off, 
yet  this  does  not  mean  that  the  end  of  the  rump  need  be  narrow  or 
peaked.  Rather  it  should  be  wide  and  plumped  out  with  flesh.  Beef 
cattle  very  frequently  exhibit  roughness  about  the  tail-head  or  at  the 
end  of  the  rump  on  each  side  of  the  tail,  due  to  the  accumulation  of 
patches  or  gobs  of  fat.  Smoothness  here  indicates  better  fleshing 
qualities. 


Fig.  5. — The  right  pattern.  Chenoweth  Jock,  Shorthorn  senior  steer  calf, 
grand  champion  at  the  1922  International  Show.  Bred,  fed,  and  shown  by  W.  J. 
and  B.  A.  Thomas,  Shelbyville,  Ky.  Weight  1,010  pounds.  Sold  for  $1.25  per 
pound.  This  calf  was  exceptionally  good  in  the  development  of  the  high-priced 
cuts  and  in  his  form  and  quality.  Note  his  blocky  form,  straight  lines,  trim  middle, 
long  level  rump,  broad  smooth  tail-head,  and  heavy  hindquarters. 

The  thigh  begins  at  the  border  of  the  rump  and  extends  down  the 
outside  of  the  leg.  It  should  be  wide  and  full  from  every  angle  of  view, 
and  come  down  with  some  bulge  on  the  outside  to  where  the  thigh 
naturally  narrows.  The  fullness  and  thickness  should  carry  down  as 
close  to  the  hock  as  possible.  Viewed  from  the  side,  the  thigh 
should  be  very  wide,  and  when  the  animal  is  viewed  from  the  rear 
there  ought  to  be  much  thickness  from  side  to  side. 


40  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

The  twist  is  the  fleshing  between  the  hind  legs,  just  as  the  thigh 
includes  the  fleshing  on  the  outside.  It  should  be  very  deep  and  full, 
filling  in  the  space  between  the  legs,  and  carrying  down  as  far  as 
possible  toward  the  hocks.  The  thighs  and  twist  furnish  the  third 
most  valuable  cut  of  the  carcass  and  are  worthy  of  careful  examination 
in  judging. 

The  hocks  and  hind  legs,  by  their  position,  indicate  the  capacity 
for  fleshing  in  the  twist  and  also  on  the  thigh.  If  the  hocks  are  straight 
and  properly  placed,  showing 'no  special  tendency  to  come  together, 


Fig.  6. — Correct  type  in  the  fat  steer.  Two-year-old  Aberdeen-Angus  steer, 
Victor,  grand  champion  at  the  International  Show  in  1911.  Fed  and  exhibited  by 
Iowa  State  College.  Weight  1,610  pounds.  Sold  for  90  cents  per  pound.  Note 
his  blocky  form,  straight  top,  deep  middle,  and  heavy  hindquarters. 

they  will  be  associated  usually  with  more  heavily  fleshed  hindquarters 
than  otherwise.  It  is  important,  therefore,  that  the  hocks  stand 
squarely  under  the  animal.  The  shanks  should  carry  straight  down, 
and,  as  in  front,  they  should  be  short  and  show  refinement  in  bone. 
The  joints  of  the  leg  should  be  clean-cut. 

The  quality  of  the  beef  animal  is  shown  in  bone,  hide,  hair,  and 
head.  Quality,  which  is  synonomous  with  refinement,  is  essential  be- 
cause it  insures  against  coarseness  of  texture  in  all  parts,  especially  the 
texture  of  the  muscles.     The  head  should  be  of  medium  size  and  should 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  41 

be  clean-cut,  presenting  a  chiseled  appearance.  The  heads  of  many- 
animals  do  not  exhibit  that  "finishing  touch"  which  characterizes  the 
head  expressive  of  refinement.  Heavy  bone,  large  rough  joints,  and 
heavy  horns  show  lack  of  quality.  One  of  the  best  indications  of  qual- 
ity is  the  hide,  which  should  be  found  pliable,  easily  stretched,  and 
only  medium  thick  when  rolled  up  in  the  hand.  The  hair  should  be 
soft  and  fine. 

Quality  is  again  shown  by  the  smoothness  of  the  animal,  both  in 
frame  and  in  fleshing.  Coarse  shoulders,  rough  hips,  and  rough,  un- 
even flesh  show  lack  of  quality.  Quality  and  good  breeding  are  usually 
found  together,  and  certainly  the  animal  with  quality  is  the  most  de- 
sirable type  for  the  producer  as  well  as  for  the  consumer.     Well-bred 


Fig.  7. — A  steer  with  excellent  lines.  Two-year-old  Aberdeen-Angus  steer, 
Blackrock,  grand  champion  at  the  International  Show  in  1905.  Fed  and  exhibited 
by  Iowa  State  College.  Weight  1,650  pounds.  Sold  for  25  cents  per  pound.  This 
steer  has  straight  side  lines  and  a  trim  middle.     He  is  free  from  paunch  iness. 

animals  respond  best  when  fed  out  for  the  market.  Coarse,  rough 
animals  yield  unattractive  carcasses  and  inferior  cuts  of  meat. 

Animals  are  sometimes  found  which  possess  too  much  quality.  In 
such  cases  there  is  a  delicacy  of  make-up;  quality  is  purchased  at  the 
expense  of  constitution.  Extreme  quality  is  also  purchased  at  the 
expense  of  size,  for  over-refined  animals  are  usually  undersized.  The 
proper  degree  of  quality  represents  the  middle  ground  between  two 
extremes,  each  of  which  is  undesirable.  This  middle  ground  is  difficult 
to  define;  it  may  be  said  that  all  the  quality  is  wanted  which  may  be 
had  without  sacrifice  of  constitution  and  proper  size. 

The  fleshing  of  beef  cattle  is  of  the  highest  importance.  The  fact 
that  the  butcher's  block  is  the  ultimate  end,  and  beef  the  ultimate 


42  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

product,  must  never  be  lost  sight  of  by  the  breeder,  feeder,  or  judge  of 
beef  cattle.  All  over  the  body,  and  more  especially  in  the  back,  loin, 
and  hindquarters,  there  should  be  found  a  uniformly  deep  covering  of 
flesh.  The  flat  of  the  hand  pressed  along  the  shoulder,  back,  or  side 
should  find  a  deep,  mellow  fleshing,  without  any  patchiness  or  bare 
spots. 

When  mature  cattle  are  heavily  fed  they  thicken  in  their  flesh,  and 
this  increase  in  thickness  is  due  to  a  mixing  of  fat  among  the  muscle 
fibers,  a  storing  of  fat  between  the  muscles,  and  a  laying  on  of  fat  just 
beneath  the  skin.  (See  Fig.  9.)  When  studying  the  fleshing  of  an 
animal  it  is  well  to  keep  in  mind  that  the  fleshing  is  made  up  partly  of 
lean  meat  and  partly  of  fat.  The  lean  meat  or  muscle  which  an  animal 
carries  is  often  called  the  "natural  flesh."  We  want  as  much  natural 
flesh  as  it  is  possible  to  obtain.  When  a  steer  is  fat  it  is  rather  difficult 
to  determine  how  much  natural  flesh  he  has.  In  order  to  estimate  this 
it  is  necessary  to  examine  the  development  of  flesh  in  those  parts  which 
take  on  very  little  fat,  as  for  example  the  thigh,  arm,  and  neck.  Width 
in  the  crops  is  another  good  indication  of  heavy  muscling. 

The  proportion  of  muscle  in  the  make-up  of  an  animal  is  evident 
at  birth  (see  Fig.  19),  and  feeding  will  not  increase  it  beyond  a  very 
narrow  limit.  Henry  and  Morrison  of  the  Wisconsin  Station  ^  discuss 
this  point  as  follows:  "Since  the  lean-meat  tissues  of  the  body  are  com- 
posed mostly  of  muscular  fibers,  any  gain  in  these  tissues  can  be  caused 
solely  by  an  increase  in  the  number  or  by  the  thickening  of  these  fibers. 
The  fibers  increase  in  number  by  dividing  lengthwise,  which  process 
occurs  with  farm  animals  only  while  young  and  growing.  Indeed, 
recent  investigations  show  that  with  some  animals  all  increase  in  the 
number  of  muscular  fibers  occurs  before  birth,  the  muscles  of  t-he  new- 
bom  young  containing  as  many  as  those  of  the  mature  animal.  The 
fibers  of  the  muscles  can  thicken  to  only  a  limited  extent,  and  hence 
the  muscular  tissues,  or  lean  meat,  of  the  mature  animal  cannot  be 
increased  beyond  a  relatively  narrow  limit,  compared  with  the  great 
storage  of  fat  which  may  occur." 

A  starving  animal  draws  upon  its  muscular  tissue  to  support  life, 
and  will  rapidly  repair  its  tissues  upon  a  return  to  favorable  conditions, 
but  from  the  standpoint  of  farm  and  feed-lot  conditions  this  fact  does 
not  enter  into  consideration  and  therefore  does  not  alter  the  statements 
which  are  here  made.  The  only  factors  which  the  feeder  has  under  his 
control  are  growth  and  fatness.  If  the  animal  is  mature,  feeding  is 
almost  exclusively  a  fattening  process;  if  the  animal  is  not  mature, 
fattening  is  accompanied  by  growth  in  bone  and  muscle.  Practically 
speaking,  we  can  no  more  increase  the  proportionate  amount  of  muscle 


^Feeds  and  Feeding,  1915,  p.  75. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


43 


by  feeding  than  we  can  adcl  quality,  or  a  better  head,  or  a  straighter 
top  line.  All  these  are  breeding  problems — not  feeding  problems. 
Feeding  will  fatten  a  steer,  increase  his  weight,  and  improve  his  form 
and  appearance,  but  it  has  little  or  no  effect  upon  the  proportion  of 
natural  flesh  in  his  make-up.  The  degree  of  fatness  shown  by  a  steer 
is  referred  to  as  his  "condition,"  and  this  feature  will  now  be  discussed. 
Condition. — In  comparison  with  dairy  cattle,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinctive features  of  beef  cattle  is  their  ability  to  fatten  easily  and  to 
deposit  the  fat  in  and  around  the  muscles,  thereby  making  the  meat 
tender  and  juicy.    As  pointed  out  above,  the  feeding  of  beef  cattle  is 


Fig.  8. — A  "rare  good  one."  California  Favorite,  a  Hereford-Shorthorn 
crossbred  senior  steer  calf,  grand  champion  at  the  1916  International  Show.  Bred, 
fed,  and  exhibited  by  the  University  of  California.  Weight  1,130  pounds.  Sold  for 
$1.75  per  pound.     His  form,  quality,  and  covering  of  flesh  were  almost  faultless. 


largely  a  fattening  process.  The  practical  feeder  knows,  however,  that 
it  is  not  profitable  to  feed  an  animal  up  to  its  limit  of  fatness,  because 
the  last  gains  a  steer  makes  are  most  costly,  and  such  animals  do  not 
suit  the  consumer  of  beef  as  well  as  a  steer  fattened  in  moderation. 
Thin  cattle  are  characterized  by  a  very  firm  fleshing,  so  that  when  the 
finger-tips  are  pressed  on  the  back  and  ribs  the  flesh  is  found  to  be  hard 
and  unyielding.  When  such  cattle  are  properly  fattened  a  decided 
change  takes  place;  the  flesh  now  has  a  mellow,  yet  firm  and  springy 


44  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

feel,  and  is  no  longer  hard  and  unyielding.  This  firm,  springy,  and 
mellow  condition  indicates  that  the  steer  is  properly  fattened  from  a 
market  standpoint.  When  feeding  for  show  purposes,  the  fattening 
proceeds  further,  and,  if  continued  to  excess,  the  fleshing  becomes  soft 
and  blubbery.  To  the  fingers,  such  an  animal  seems  incased  in  blubber, 
and  when  the  animal  is  slaughtered  this  is  indeed  found  to  be  true. 

The  best  way  to  determine  the  state  of  fatness  of  an  animal  is  to 
use  the  hands  in  the  manner  mentioned  above.  This  can  be  done 
rapidly,  yet  thoroughly,  by  a  vigorous  handling  along  the  top  and 


Fig.  9. — Proportions  of  lean  and  fat  in  beef  cattle.  Half  cross-sections  of 
body  between  sixth  and  seventh  ribs,  showing  thickening  of  flesh  due  to  deposition 
of  fat.  A  represents  an  animal  in  very  thin  condition.  The  white  shown  in  A  is 
chiefly  connective  tissue.  B  represents  an  animal  in  all  respects  similar  to  A,  except 
that  it  was  full  fed  for  four  months  and  was  in  moderately  fattened  condition.  C 
represents  a  similar  animal  full  fed  for  twelve  months  and  made  excessively  fat. 
A  was  3  years  old  when  slaughtered;  B,  S14  years;  C,  4  years.  Deposition  of  fat 
within  the  muscles,  known  as  "marbling,"  is  noticeable  in  B  and  C.  Note  that 
increase  in  flesh  in  mature  cattle  due  to  feeding  is  almost  entirely  an  increase  in  fat, 
the  quantity  of  muscle  remaining  nearly  constant. 

down  over  the  ribs  and  shoulders.  Other  means  of  determining  the 
condition  consist  of  examinations  of  the  cod,  hind  flank,  and  tongue- 
root.    At  these  points  the  fat  tends  to  accumulate  extensively,  and 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  45 

they  are,  therefore,  good  indices  of  condition.  After  castration,  the 
scrotum  with  its  content  of  fat  is  called  the  "cod."  Thin  steers  show 
very  little  fullness  of  cod,  while  fat  ones  have  the  cod  completely  filled 
with  fat.  Thin  animals  also  exhibit  a  very  light  hind  flank.  At  the 
beginning  there  may  be  little  more  than  a  fold  of  skin;  when  fat,  this 
part  fills  out  remarkably  full  and  heavy.  By  placing  the  flat  of  the 
hand  beneath  it  and  lifting,  the  quantity  of  fat  in  the  flank  is  easily 
determined.  When  a  fat  steer  walks,  there  is  a  characteristic  roll  or 
swell  to  the  flank  as  the  hind  leg  swings  forward.  This  is  not  notice- 
able in  a  thin  animal.  The  thickness  of  the  tongue-root  may  be  de- 
termined by  grasping  the  part  with  the  thumb  and  fingers. 

Some  individuals  fatten  smoothly,  with  no  special  tendency  to 
bunch  the  fat  in  patches  or  rolls  at  certain  points,  while  others  become 
"roily,"  or  "patchy,"  in  spite  of  all  the  feeder's  skill.  Patches  and 
rolls  are  most  often  found  about  the  tail-head  and  end  of  the  rump, 
along  the  ribs,  and  at  the  edge  of  the  loin.  The  occurrence  of  these 
is  highly  undesirable;  they  indicate  an  improper  distribution  of  fat, 
give  the  animal  a  rough  appearance,  and,  when  the  animal  is  slaughter- 
ed, the  carcass  is  discounted,  for  then  the  bunches  of  fat  are  very 
evident  and  the  appearance  is  spoiled.  The  fatter  the  steer  becomes, 
the  greater  is  the  tendency  toward  patchiness,  yet  many  animals  begin 
to  exhibit  this  defect  before  they  are  really  ripe  and  ready  for  market. 

Style  has  actual  market  value  in  a  fat  steer.  A  stylish  steer  is 
one  that  stands  squarely  on  his  feet,  with  his  back  level,  head  well  up, 
and  eyes  and  ears  attentive  to  what  is  going  on  about  him.  This  does 
not  mean  a  nervous  animal,  but  a  wide-awake  one,  full  of  life,  and 
seemingly  interested  in  the  things  about  him.  When  he  walks,  he  does 
it  easily  and  without  awkwardness.  Other  things  being  equal,  such  a 
steer  will  attract  buyers  much  more  quickly  than  an  animal  that 
slouches  while  standing,  showing  a  pronounced  dip  in  the  back,  and 
having  an  awkward  stride  when  in  motion.  These  two  animals  may 
dress  out  equally  high,  and  yield  equally  valuable  carcasses;  the  differ- 
ence is  that  the  first  steer  forces  his  good  points  to  the  attention  of  the 
buyer  and  shows  for  all  he  is  worth,  while  in  the  case  of  the  second 
steer,  the  buyer  is  left  to  discover  the  animal's  good  points  without 
any  assistance  from  the  animal.  Cattle  with  style  sell  more  readily 
and  at  slightly  higher  prices  than  cattle  without  style. 

Size  and  weight  vary  according  to  age,  sex,  breed,  and  fatness. 
Disregarding  breed  differences,  for  this  factor  need  not  be  considered 
here,  the  following  figures  represent  fair  standards  of  weight  at  differ- 
ent ages  for  well-fattened  steers: 


46  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Age  Weight 

At  birth 70  pounds 

6  months 450  pounds 

12  months 850  pounds 

18  months 1,100  pounds 

24  months 1,300  pounds 

30  months 1,475  pounds 

36  months 1,600  pounds 

Age  from  the  teeth. — The  ages  of  cattle  may  be  determined  with 
a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  by  an  examination  of  the  teeth.  There  are 
eight  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw  of  mature  cattle.  There  are  no  incisors 
in  the  upper  jaw,  but  a  tough,  fibrous  pad  instead,  amply  suited  to  the 
grazing  habits  of  cattle.     The  dentition  at  various  ages  is  as  follows: 

Age  Incisors 

12  months.  All  calf  teeth  in  place. 

15  months.  Center  permanent  incisors  appear. 

18  months.  Center  permanent  incisors  in  wear. 

24  months.  First  intermediates  up. 

30  months.  Six  broad  incisors. 

36  months.  Six  h     id  incisors  in  wear. 

39  months.  Cor         up. 

42  months.  Eig        -oad  incisors  in  wear. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  BEEF  CARCASS 

Buyers  of  fat  cattle  at  the  large  market  centers  make  their  bids 
largely  according  to  their  estimates  of  the  kind  of  carcasses  the  animals 
will  yield.  These  estimates  are  made  with  considerable  accuracy  be- 
cause the  buyers  have  made  a  study  of  carcasses  and  of  the  cuts  which 
they  yield.  A  similar  knowledge  of  meats  is  essential  to  the  beef  pro- 
ducer in  order  that  he  may  learn  to  judge  and  value  beef  cattle  correctly. 

Slaughtering  and  dressing.44jpon  reaching  the  packing  house, 
cattle  rapidly  pass  through  the  following  operations  of  killing  and 


iHtflB 

■  ^ffii  m  n^H 

ICSMM 

Fig.  10. — Knocking  cattle. 

dressing:  1  1.  Driven  into  knocking  pens,  two  animals  to  each  pen, 
and  stunned  or  killed  by  heavy  blow  of  sledge  hammer  on  forehead. 
2.  Hoisted  by  hind  legs,  bled,  and  head  skinned  and  removed.  3. 
Lowered  to  floor,  shanks  skinned  and  removed  at  knees  and  hocks, 
and  hide  opened  along  middle  of  belly  and  removed  from  belly  and 
sides.  4.  Partially  raised  by  hocks,  middles  opened,  viscera  removed, 
hide  removed  from  rump  and  rounds,  and  tail  skinned  and  removed. 
5.  Carcass  raised  from  floor,  hide  removed  entirely,  and  carcass  split 
through  center  of  backbone  from  tail  to  neck.     6.     Sides  of  beef  sus- 


iWentworth,  Munnecke,  and  Brown:  Progressive  Beef  Cattle  Raising,  Armour 
and  Company,  Chicago,  1920,  pp.  74,  75. 

47 


48  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

pended  from  overhead  rail,  washed  with  warm  water,  wiped  dry,  and 
sent  to  coolers. 

Briefly,  the  above  operations  consist  of  stunning,  bleeding,  re- 
moval of  hide,  head,  shanks,  tail,  and  viscera,  splitting,  washing, 
drying,  cooling.  All  internal  organs  are  removed  except  the  kidneys. 
The  time  required  for  slaughtering  and  dressing  is  about  one  hour. 
The  temperature  of  the  coolers  is  kept  at  about  34  degrees  Fahrenheit 
and  the  sides  of  beef  hang  in  the  coolers  for  at  least  48  hours  before 
being  quartered  or  otherwise  cut  up.  Prime  beef  requires  three  to 
four  weeks  ageing  in  the  cooler  to  arrive  at  its  best  condition. 

The  oflFal.— The  blood,  head,  shanks,  tail,  hide,  viscera,  and  loose 
fat  are  collectively  called  the  "offal"  or  "waste"  of  the  steer,  so  called 
because  formerly,  with  the  exception  of  the  hide,  tallow,  and  tongue, 
the  offal  was  thrown  away.  Today  all  of  it  is  valuable  for  manufac- 
turing into  various  by-products.     (See  Chapter  III.) 

The  dressing  percentage. -r-By  comparing  the  weight  of  the  chilled 
carcass  with  the  live  weight  of  the  animal,  the  percentage  of  yield,  or 
what  is  called  the  "dressing  percentage,"  is  determined.  This  is  a 
very  important  factor  in  determining  the  market  price  of  cattle  for 
slaughter;  the  buyer  always  estimates  the  dressing  percentage  before 
bidding  on  a  load.  For  example,  if  steer  No.  1  weighing  1,200  pounds 
on  foot  yields  a  carcass  weighing  720  pounds,  the  dressing  percentage 
is  60.  If  steer  No.  2  of  the  same  live  weight  yields  a  carcass  weighing 
690  pounds,  the  dressing  percentage  is  57.5.  Steer  No.  1  dresses  2.5 
per  cent  higher  and  yields  30  pounds  more  carcass  beef  than  No.  2. 
If  steer  carcasses  of  this  grade  are  selling  at  $20  per  cwt.,  then  30  pounds 
of  carcass  beef  is  worth  $6.  This  means  that  steer  No.  1  is  worth  $6 
more  on  foot  than  No.  2,  a  difference  equal  to  50  cents  per  cwt.  In 
handling  thousands  of  animals,  as  do  the  large  packing  firms,  the  dress- 
ing percentage  is  a  matter  of  great  importance.  The  range  in  the 
dressing  percentages  of  cattle  is  from  35  to  70  per  cent.  Census  re- 
turns indicate  that  the  average  dressing  percentage  of  cattle  is  about 
54  per  cent  and  of  calves  about  62  per  cent.  Calves  dress  a  higher 
percentage  than  cattle  because  the  hide  is  left  on  the  veal  carcass  to 
preserve  the  color  and  moisture  of  the  flesh,  which  dries  out  and  turns 
dark  much  more  rapidly  than  beef  when  exposed  to  the  air. 

Dressing  percentage  as  a  factor  in  cattle  prices. — If  steer  No.  2 
described  above  sells  on  foot  at  $11,50  per  cwt.,  steer  No.  1  should 
bring  $12  per  cwt.  In  this  instance  an  increase  in  dressing  percentage 
of  2.5  per  cent  added  50  cents  per  cwt.  to  the  live  value.  Note  that 
the  difference  between  these  steers  in  dressing  percentage  (2.5)  multi- 
plied by  the  price  of  one  pound  of  carcass  beef  (20  cents)  gives  the 
difference  in  live  value  per  cwt.  (50  cents).     When,  as  in  this  instance. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  49 

two  animals  yield  carcasses  of  the  same  value  per  pound,  then  the 
difference  in  live  value  per  cwt.  will  be  the  difference  in  dressing  percentage 
multiplied  by  the  price  of  one  pound  of  carcass  beef.  From  this  we  see 
that  the  price  the  packer  can  pay  for  cattle  is  limited  very  largely  by 
two  important  factors — (1)  the  dressing  percentage  and  (2)  the  price 
he  can  obtain  for  carcass  beef.  A  third  important  factor  affecting  the 
market  price  of  cattle,  the  value  of  the  by-products,  is  discussed  in  the 
next  chapter.  1 

Factors  determining  dressing  percentage.^The  chief  factors  de- 
termining the  dressing  percentage  of  a  steer  are  (1)  quantity  of  flesh, 
both  lean  and  fat,  (2)  paunchiness,  and  (3)  refinement  of  head,  bone, 
and  hide.  Well-bred  steers,  well  fattened  and  with  straight  lines,  that 
is,  free  from  paunchiness,  dress  out  62  to  65  per  cent.  The  highest 
record  known  to  the  writer,  where  the  steer  was  dressed  in  the  usual 
manner,  is  69.9  per  cent.  Aged  dairy  cows  which  have  outlived  their 
usefulness  as  milk  producers  are  sent  to  market;  they  are  very  paunchy 
and  very  thin,  and  dress  around  45  per  cent.  Here  a  fourth  factor  in 
dressing  percentage  is  introduced,  namely  weight  of  udder,  which  some- 
times is  considerable.  The  cow's  udder  is  removed  in  slaughtering. 
In  determining  the  dressing  percentage,  the  refinement  of  head,  bone, 
and  hide  is  of  less  importance  as  a  rule  than  quantity  of  flesh  or 
paunchiness,  although  in  some  animals  the  weight  of  hide  is  a  con- 
siderable item. 

How  the  carcass  is  produced.-^Before  discussing  the  qualifications 
of  a  good  carcass,  it  will  be  profitable  to  consider  briefly  how  an  animal 
grows  and  builds  up  the  parts  of  its  body  which  eventually  make  up 
the  carcass.  The  carcass  consists  of  bone,  muscle,  connective  tissue, 
and  fat.  At  birth  the  calf  weighs  about  70  pounds.  Its  bones  are 
soft  and  elastic,  and  its  muscles  are  tender.  It  carries  a  certain  degree 
of  fatness,  depending  on  how  well  it  was  nourished  before  it  was  born — 
in  other  words,  on  how  well  its  mother  was  fed.  Up  to  weaning  time 
it  subsists  largely  upon  its  mother's  milk,  which  is  primarily  a  bone 
and  muscle  builder,  producing  growth. 

When  weaned,  the  future  development  of  the  calf  depends  upon 
(1)  ancestry,  (2)  feed,  and  (3)  management.  If  its  ancestors  were 
dairy  animals,  it  will  not  produce  a  valuable  carcass.     However,  we 


1  Usually  the  returns  from  the  sale  of  both  carcasses  and  by-products  enable 
packers  to  pay  more  for  live  animals  than  they  receive  from  the  sale  of  the  carcasses. 
(See  table,  page  67.)  If  packers  pay  exactly  as  much  for  the  live  animal  as  they 
receive  from  the  sale  of  the  carcass,  then  the  live  value  of  the  animal  per  cwt.  is  the  dress- 
ing percentage  multiplied  by  the  price  of  one  pound  of  carcass  beef^  of  the  class  and  grade 
yielded  by  the  animal.  For  example,  if  the  dressing  percentage  is  60  and  the  carcass 
is  of  a  class  and  grade  selling  at  $20  per  cwt.  (20  cents  per  pound),  the  live  value  of 
the  animal  is  $12  per  cwt.  Thus  we  see  that  the  packer  buyer  must  use  good  judg- 
ment not  only  in  estimating  dressing  percentages,  but  also  in  estimating  the  grade 
of  carcasses  the  animals  will  yield. 


50  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

are  dealing  with  beef  production  and  will  assume  the  calf  is  from  a 
good  line  of  beef  cattle.  If  given  plenty  of  feed  and  good  care,  in  other 
words  every  opportunity  to  develop  quickly,  the  calf  rapidly  increases 
in  size  and  its  flesh  expands  and  thickens.  It  also  lays  on  fat.  It  is 
hard  to  fatten  young  animals  because  they  tend  to  utilize  their  feed 
for  growth  rather  than  fat.  Growth  is  increase  in  bone  and  muscle. 
However,  with  heavy  feeding,  beef  cattle  of  the  modern,  blocky  type, 
become  fat  before  reaching  maturity,  and  may  be  sent  to  market  under 
20  months  of  age  weighing  800  to  1,000  pounds.  Such  animals  are 
called  "baby  beeves." 

Another  way  to  handle  the  calf  is  to  turn  it  out  to  pasture  and 
perhaps  help  it  along  with  a  little  grain  if  the  pasture  is  short.  In 
this  case  the  object  is  to  produce  growth  only,  and  the  animal  may 
then  be  finished  as  a  two-year-old.  Under  this  plan  the  animal  should 
be  roughed  through  the  winter  with  care,  otherwise  it  will  receive  a 
setback.  Once  the  baby  fleshing  is  lost  through  setbacks  received 
during  development,  the  steer  does  not  make  as  desirable  a  carcass  as 
he  would  otherwise. 

Changes  in  the  hones. — As  an  animal  increases  in  age,  its  bones  be- 
come hard  and  flinty.  The  bones  which  bear  the  most  strain  become 
most  flinty,  these  being  the  shank  bones.  In  young  cattle  the  tips  of 
the  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrae  are  soft  and  cartilaginous. 
These  "buttons,"  as  they  are  called,  are  present  up  to  the  age  of  18 
months;  thereafter  they  gradually  ossify,  and  at  about  the  fifth  year 
the  spines  are  hard  to  the  tips.  Similar  changes  take  place  in  the 
cartilages  on  the  breastbone  before  the  third  or  fourth  year.  The 
breastbone,  backbone,  ribs,  and  pelvis  gradually  harden  and  whiten, 
especially  after  the  age  of  18  months.  ^  When  visiting  a  beef  cooler, 
the  age  of  the  animals  from  which  the  carcasses  came  may  be  told 
approximately  by  the  bones. 

Changes  in  the  muscles. — With  increase  in  age  the  muscles  become 
tougher  through  use.  The  muscles  which  the  animal  uses  most  and 
which  do  the  most  work  become  the  toughest  in  their  make-up;  these 
are  the  muscles  of  the  neck  and  those  used  in  locomotion,  including  the 
muscles  of  the  thigh,  shoulder,  and  arm. 

Storage  of  fat. — Wild  animals  store  up  fat  in  their  bodies  as  a  re- 
serve upon  which  they  rely  in  times  when  food  is  scanty.  The  bear, 
for  instance,  stores  much  fat  during  summer  and  fall,  which  is  resorbed 
and  used  to  support  life  during  hibernation  in  winter,  and  he  comes 
out  in  the  spring  in  very  thin  condition.  The  storing  of  fat  is  a  provi- 
sion of  nature.  In  the  domestic  animals  which  produce  meat,  man  has 
encouraged  this  fat-storing  tendency  by  methods  of  breeding  and  feed- 

411.  Bui.  147,  p.  158. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


51 


ing.  That  great  success  has  been  achieved  along  this  line  is  shown  by 
the  highly  finished  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs  coming  from  the  hands  of 
the  best  stockmen.  Fat  is  stored  over  the  back,  loin,  rump,  ribs,  and 
shoulders,  forming  a  layer  of  clear  fat  just  beneath  the  skin.  It  is 
also  stored  about  the  internal  organs,  between  the  muscles,  and  within 


Fig.  11. — Prime  steer  carcass.  Champion  beef  carcass  at  the  1917  Inter- 
national Show,  from  Pandean  Jr.,  an  Aberdeen-Angus  yearling  steer,  bred,  fed,  and 
exhibited  by  Iowa  State  College.  Live  weight  1,185  pounds,  dressed  weight  789 
pounds,  dressing  percentage  66.58,  Carcass  sold  for  413^  cents  per  pound.  This 
carcass  was  practically  ideal  in  every  respect.  Show  carcasses  of  beef  are  dressed 
with  the  tail  on. 


the  muscles  among  the  muscle  fibers.     This  storing  of  fat  among  the 
muscle  fibers  gives  the  cuts  of  beef  a  marbled  appearance,  termed 


52  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

"marbling."  Practically  no  fat  is  deposited  in  the  muscles  which  do 
much  work,  hence  we  find  the  round  steak  coming  from  the  thigh  to 
be  almost  completely  free  from  fat.  The  muscles  of  the  loin  and  back, 
having  little  work  to  do,  take  on  the  marbling  feature  quite  easily  if 
the  animal  is  well  bred  and  properly  handled.  This  largely  explains 
why  the  cuts  from  the  loin  and  back  are  most  tender,  although  in  these 
muscles  there  is  not  the  stimulus  to  the  growth  of  connective  tissue 
such  as  is  the  case  in  working  muscles,  and  this  is  undoubtedly  another 
reason  why  the  loin  and  back  yield  cuts  of  superior  terderness. 

As  stated  in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  feeding  of  mature  cattle 
is  essentially  a  fattening  process.  This  is  clearly  shown  by  results  at 
the  Missouri  Station, '  where  muscle  fibers  and  fat  cells  extracted  from 
steers  at  different  periods  during  the  fattening  process  were  examined 
and  measured  under  the  microscope  and  it  was  found  that  while  there 
was  very  little  or  no  increase  in  the  diameter  of  the  muscle  fibers,  the 
fat  cells  increased  enormously  both  in  number  and  size. 

Thus  we  understand  why  cattle  diff"er  widely  in  the  kind  of  car- 
casses they  yield,  depending  upon  their  inherited  tendencies  and  upon 
their  feed  and  care.  The  effects  of  inheritance  are  discussed  in  more 
detail  in  Chapter  IV. 

Variations  in  carcasses. — A  study  of  the  carcasses  in  any  cooler 
brings  out  striking  differences.  Some  are  large,  being  from  1,500-  to 
1,600-pound  animals;  others  are  from  younger  beeves  that  weighed  800 
to  1,100  pounds.  Some  are  compact  and  wide,  others  are  long  and 
narrow.  Some  are  well  developed  in  the  regions  of  high-priced  cuts, 
while  others  are  deficient  in  this  respect.  Some  carry  heavy  fleshing, 
others  are  very  poorly  covered  indeed.  The  layer  of  outside  fat  is 
very  thick  in  some,  these  being  highly  finished  cattle  fed  on  grain. 
Others  show  practically  no  covering  of  fat.  These  are  from  grass-fed 
cattle — poor  pasture  too,  for  a  steer  puts  on  some  fat  on  grass  if  the 
pasture  is  good.  Some  show  a  nice  intermixing  of  fat  and  lean,  called 
"marbling/'  while  others  exhibit  this  feature  very  slightly,  or  none  at 
all.  The  lean  meat  of  some  carcasses  has  a  pale  red  color;  in  others  it 
is  very  dark.  Some  carry  snow-white  fat,  others  carry  fat  of  a  yellow 
color.  Some  beef  is  fine  grained,  and  some  is  very  coarse  and  fibrous. 
Some  carcasses  have  soft  bones,  somewhat  cartilaginous  in  character; 
others  have  hard  flinty  bones.  Size  of  bones  varies  a  great  deal  in 
different  carcasses. 

Demands  of  the  butcher  and  consumer. — The  questions  which 
now  come  before  us  are:  1.  What  kinds  of  lean  meat  and  fat  does 
the  butcher  want?    2.     How  much  lean  meat  does  he  want,  and  how 


^H.  J.  Waters:  Influence  of  Nutrition  Upon  the  Animal  Form,  paper  presented 
at  Thirtieth  Meeting  of  Society  for  Promotion  of  Agricultural  Science. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  53 

much  fat?    3.     How  does  he  want  these  two  substances  arranged  with 
regard  to  each  other? 

These  questions  bring  up  the  demands  of  consumers  of  meats,  for 
the  butcher  is  guided  by  what  the  consumer  of  beef  wants  and  will 
pay  for.  You  and  I  are  consumers  of  meat,  and  what  we  Hke,  or  dis- 
Hke,  together  with  the  size  of  our  pocketbook,  guides  the  butcher  who 
buys  our  cattle.  Now  what  do  we  want?  We  want  meat  that  is  (1) 
nutritious,  (2)  tender,  (3)  juicy,  (4)  of  good  flavor,  (5)  attractive  in 
appearance,  and  (6)  moderate  in  amount  of  outside  fat.  Provided 
beef  is  well  ripened  in  the  cooler  and  well  cooked,  there  is  not  much 
variation  in  its  nutritive  or  food  value.  The  tenderness  depends  upon 
the  work  the  muscle  has  done  and  upon  the  amount  of  marbling  it 
carries.  Meat  free  from  fat  shrivels  and  drys  up  when  roasted,  be- 
coming dry  and  tough.  Ageing  or  ripening  in  the  cooler  helps  to  make 
meat  tender.  Juiciness  results  from  the  presence  of  fat  and  manner  of 
cooking.  The  flavor  depends  mostly  upon  fatness  and  upon  proper 
ripening  of  the  carcass.  The  cuts  of  beef  which  are  most  attractive  in 
appearance  are  those  with  bright,  rich,  red  lean,  snow-white  fat,  and  a 
high  degree  of  marbling.  The  consumer  desires  a  maximum  of  lean 
meat  well  marbled,  and  a  minimum  of  bone  and  outside  fat  in  the  cuts 
of  beef.  FoUpwing  is  a  discussion  of  the  qualifications  of  a  high-class 
carcass:   \/         l-^^-"]    /^  ji- '-^" 

1.  Weight  of  carcass. — The  heaviest  carcasses  seldom  exceed 
1,050  pounds,  and  the  minimum  is  about  250  pounds.  ^  No  definite 
line  as  to  weight  can  be  drawn  between  carcasses  of  beef  and  veal, 
because  many  factors  determine  the  character  of  the  flesh.  The 
greatest  demand  is  for  carcasses  from  1,100-  to  1,300-pound  steers,  and 
most  of  the  cattle  coming  to  market  are  of  about  these  weights.  Such 
carcasses  yield  retail  cuts  of  a  size  to  suit  the  average  family.  There 
is  also  a  demand  for  heavy  carcasses  to  supply  hotels,  restaurants,  and 
dining  cars,  which  use  large  cuts. 

2.  Shape  of  carcass. — The  ideal  carcass  of  beef  is  compact,  plump, 
,and  has  good  width  in  proportion  to  length,  short  shanks  and  neck, 
and  full  rounds,  loins,  and  ribs.  Such  a  carcass  is  more  thickly  fleshed 
and  is  usually  better  finished  in  all  cuts  than  one  that  is  long,  narrow, 
and  loosely  coupled. 

3.  Thickness  of  fleshing. — There  is  a  clear  distinction  between 
thickness  due  to  fatness  and  thickness  due  to  muscular  flesh.  Only 
the  knife  can  completely  reveal  the  thickness  of  a  side  and  the  relative 
thickness  of  fat  and  lean ;  even  expert  dealers  are  often  mistaken  as  to 
the  actual  thickness  of  flesh  in  an  uncut  side. 


iFor  many  of  the  specifications  included  in  this  chapter  the  writer  is  indebted 
to  Illinois  Bulletin  147,  Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Meat,  by  Louis  D.  Hall. 


54 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


4.  Thickness  of  outside  fat. — This  is  referred  to  as  the  "finish." 
Perfect  finish  consists  of  a  smooth  covering  of  firm  white  fat  over  the 
entire  carcass,  with  the  greatest  depth  along  the  back,  a  white  brittle 
"kidney"  of  medium  size,  and  a  lining  of  flaky  fat  on  the  inner  surface 
of  the  ribs.  The  rounds  and  shanks  are  covered  last  in  the  process  of 
fattening.  Carcasses  show  variation  in  thickness  of  external  fat,  rang- 
ing all  the  way  from  zero  to  four  inches.  Beef  fat  is  not  palatable  to 
most  people.  The  average  consumer  does  not  want  more  than  one- 
half  or  three-fourths  of  an  inch  of  outside  fat,  and  if  the  carcass  weighs 
500  pounds  or  less,  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  is  sufficient.  It  is 
impossible  to  secure  proper  marbling  unless  a  certain  amount  of  fat  is 
put  on  externally  at  the  same  time,  but  the  necessary  marbling  is 
usually  secured  when  one-half  or  three-fourths  of  an  inch  of  fat  is  laid 
on  externally;  after  this  point  is  reached,  the  fat  is  largely  stored  ex- 


FlG.  12. — Beef  ribs.  The  rib  cut  on  the  left  is  too  fat,  the  one  on  the  right 
is  too  lean,  and  the  cut  in  the  center  is  correctly  fattened.  Note  that  the  amount 
of  lean  meat  is  practically  the  same  in  all  three. 


ternally,  between  the  muscles,  and  about  the  internal  organs.  A  cer- 
tain amount  of  outside  fat  is  necessary  in  prime  beef  in  order  to  insure 
proper  ripening  in  the  cooler,  and  also  for  proper  roasting.  In  the- 
lowest  grades,  such  as  canners,  outside  fat  is  entirely  lacking  and  such 
carcasses  will  decompose  before  they  ripen.  A  carcass  carrying  soft, 
"gobby"  fat  sells  at  a  discount.  Grass-fed  cattle  often  yield  carcasses 
that  are  watery  and  flabby,  with  a  marked  lack  of  finish.  Heifers 
carry  a  higher  percentage  of  fat  in  all  cuts  than  do  steers.  This  is  one 
of  the  principal  reasons  why  they  often  sell  at  a  discount  in  this  country 
while  in  England  they  are  not  discriminated  against  because  the 
Englishman  likes  fatter  beef. 

Cattle  fed  to  a  complete  finish,  as  are  the  beef  cattle  exhibited  at 
the  larger  live-stock  shows,  carry  a  great  excess  of  outside  fat — far  too 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  55 

much  to  suit  the  average  consumer.  This  excess  of  tallow  adds  practi- 
cally nothing  to  the  value  of  the  carcass  as  food.  In  a  way,  the  fat- 
stock  shows  set  a  wrong  example  for  feeders  to  follow.  Such  a  finish 
results  from  a  long  feeding  period  of  8  to  10  months,  and  in  some  cases 
even  longer.  A  3  to  6  months  feeding  period  gives  a  carcass  which 
suits  the  consumer  better,  and  such  a  plan  is  undoubtedly  more  profit- 
able to  the  feeder,  because  the  first  gains  a  steer  makes  are  acquired 
much  more  cheaply  than  the  last  ones.  This  does  not  mean  that  the 
farmer  should  send  thin  cattle  to  market;  it  means  there  is  a  place  to 
stop  in  the  feeding  of  a  bullock  which  results  in  greatest  profit  to  the 
producer  and  best  satisfaction  to  the  consumer.  A  smooth  and  firmly 
finished  steer  is  the  sort  this  implies.  As  bearing  on  the  matter  of 
cost  of  gains,  the  Kansas  Station  ^  found  the  grain  required  for  100 
pounds  of  gain  with  fattening  steers  for  different  periods  to  be  as 
follows: 

Grain  for  Increase    of 

100  lbs.  gain  feed  required 

Up  to    56  days 730  pounds  of  grain 

Up  to    84  days 807  pounds  of  grain  10  per  cent 

Up  to  112  days 840  pounds  of  grain  15  per  cent 

Up  to  140  days 901  pounds  of  grain  23  per  cent 

Up  to  168  days 927  pounds  of  grain  27  per  cent 

Up  to  182  days 1,000  pounds  of  grain  37  per  cent 

These  figures  indicate  the  heavy  cost  of  thoroughly  fattening  a 
steer,  and  the  importance  of  selling  as  early  as  it  is  possible  to  attain 
the  proper  degree  of  finish. 

5.  Marbling. — The  highest  quality  of  beef  is  that  which  contains 
the  largest  proportion  of  well-marbled  lean. 

6.  Color  of  lean  meat. — ^The  meat  from  grass-finished  cattle  is 
often  dark  in  color.  Grain  feeding  gives  the  best  color— a  bright,  rich 
red.  Dark  color  is  due  to  the  presence  of  much  blood  in  the  tissues. 
Exercise  or  excitement  will  bring  about  this  condition,  hence  the  dark- 
colored  flesh  of  western  range  cattle,  and  of  grass-fed  cattle  in  general, 
is  not  due  to  the  nature  of  the  feed,  but  to  the  amount  of  exercise 
made  necessary  in  ranging  about  at  pasture.  Stags  and  bulls  kill  out 
dark  because  of  their  restlessness,  and  of  heifers  in  heat  the  same  is 
true.  Dark  carcasses  break  down  (decompose)  quicker  than  light- 
colored  ones,  and  consumers  object  to  the  appearance,  hence  butchers 
have  two  good  reasons  for  disliking  a  dark-colored  carcass. 

7.  Color  of  fat. — A  clear  white  color  of  fat  is  desired.  An  un- 
attractive yellow  color  is  rather  frequently  met  with.  Some  packers 
believe  the  yellow  color  is  due  to  the  kind  of  feed  upon  which  the  animal 
was  fattened.  Cottonseed  meal  has  been  charged  with  this  fault,  but 
experimental  work  has  shown  that  cottonseed  meal  does  not  produce 

iKan.  Bui.  34. 


56 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


yellow  fat.     Cattle  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey  breeding  usually  kill  very 
yellow. 

8.  Grain  of  meat. — When  the  fresh-cut  surface  is  viewed,  it 
should  show  a  smooth,  fine-grained  appearance,  and  should  feel 
"velvety"  to  the  touch.  Meat  with  fine  grain  comes  from  the  animal 
with  quality,  that  is,  one  with  fine  hide,  hair,  and  bone.  Such  an 
animal  is  finely  textured  throughout,  and  if  well  fed,  so  that  the  baby 
fleshing  is  preserved,  a  carcass  with  fine-grained  flesh  will  result.  Some 
meats  are  very  coarse  indeed. 

9.  Size  of  bones. — The  bones  should  be  as  small  as  the  weight 
of  the  carcass  will  allow.  From  the  producer's  standpoint,  however, 
such  carcasses  do  not  always  represent  greatest  profits,  because  ex- 


FlG.  13. — Well-marbled  beef.     Rib  roast  showing  correct  proportion  of  fat  to 
lean,  and  a  high  degree  of  marbling. 


tremely  fine-boned  cattle  do  not  usually  make  the  greatest  gains  on 
feed. 

10.  Flintiness  of  bones. — As  already  shown,  flintiness  of  the 
bones  is  an  indication  of  age.  The  most  desirable  carcasses  are  those 
of  young  animals  approaching  maturity,  the  meat  from  old  ones  being 
tough,  dark-colored,  and  lacking  in  marbling.  The  bones  of  cows  and 
heifers,  and  of  dairy-bred  animals,  turn  hard  and  white  earlier  than 
those  of  steers,  indicating  quicker  maturity. 

Grading  carcasses. — As  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  above 
factors  in  grading  carcass  beef,  it  may  be  said  that  finish  (by  which  is 
meant  the  thickness  and  smoothness  of  outside  fat)  is  particularly 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  57 

essential,  with  thickness  of  flesh,  fineness  of  grain,  color  of  lean  and  fat, 
fineness  of  bone,  and  shape  of  carcass  of  about  equal  importance. 

All  carcasses  not  suitable  for  block  beef. — Carcass  beef  which  is 
thick  and  fat  enough  so  that  the  entire  side  can  be  sold  over  the 
butcher's  block  in  retail  cuts  is  known  as  "block  beef"  or  "side  beef." 
Carcasses  that  are  not  thick  enough  in  flesh  to  be  entirely  utilized  by 
the  retailer  are  called  "cutters."  The  loins  and  ribs  of  cutters  may  be 
sold  over  the  block.  "Canners"  are  the  worst  carcasses  to  be  found, 
from  which  none  of  the  regular  wholesale  cuts  may  be  sold  over  the 
block,  but  which  must  be  disposed  of  as  boneless  fresh  meats  and  cured 
beef  products.  ^  Fully  95  per  cent  of  the  beef  produced  in  the  United 
States  is  sold  in  the  fresh  state. 

Carcass  classes  and  grades. — All  carcasses  of  cattle  are  classified 
and  graded  as  follows: 

Class  Grades 

Steers Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common,  cutter,  canner 

Heifers Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common,  cutter,  canner 

Cows Choice,  good,  medium,  common,  cutter,  canner 

Bulls  and  stags Choice,  good,  medium,  common,  bologna,  canner 

Veal  calves Choice,  good,  medium,  common,  canner 

The  following  wholesale  prices  ^  indicate  the  comparative  values  of 
those  grades  of  the  above  classes  which  are  suitable  for  block  beef: 

Class  J^'  Weight  Price 

Steer  carcasses 350  to  700  lbs 12  to  18      cents  per  lb. 

Heifer  carcasses ...  .400  to  600  lbs 12  to  16 >^  cents  per  lb. 

Cow  carcasses 250  to  600  lbs 9  to  13      cents  per  lb. 

Bull  carcasses 400  to  600  lbs.  and  up 6  to  10      cents  per  lb. 

Veal  carcasses 50  to  275  lbs.,  hides  on 12  to  18      cents  per  lb. 

Sex  differences.  ^ — Steer  carcasses  are  identified  by  the  cod  fat  and 
generally  by  their  full,  fleshy  rounds  and  loins,  heavier,  coarser  bones, 
and  short  necks  as  compared  with  cows.  They  show  more  quality  and 
finish  than  any  other  class,  and  are  sold  as  carcass  beef  more  extensively 
than  any  other  class,  except  heifers.  Heifer  carcasses  are  distinguished 
by  the  udder,  and  usually  they  have  smaller  bones,  more  prominent 
hips,  more  angular  rumps,  less  development  of  lean  meat,  and  they 
average  lighter  in  weight.  The  tendency  in  heifer  beef  is  to  carry  the 
fat  more  extensively  as  kidney  suet  or  gobby  fat  than  do  steers.  They 
have  fiatter  loins,  flatter  plates,  and  longer,  thinner  necks  than  steers. 
Carcasses  of  cows  have  the  bag  trimmed  off  as  closely  as  possible.  The 
form  is  angular,  the  neck  long,  the  bones  hard  and  white,  and  the 
majority  lack  thickness  of  flesh.  Fat  cow  carcasses  often  carry  an 
excess  of  kidney  fat  and  bunches  of  fat  on  the  back  and  rump.  The 
flesh  is  seldom  as  well  marbled  as  that  of  heifers  or  steers.     Cow  car- 


1111.  Bui.  147,  p.  156. 

^Wholesale  price  list  of  a  leading  Chicago  packer,  March,  1923. 

nil.  Bui.  147. 


58 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


casses  require  more  ageing  or  ripening  to  make  the  meat  tender. 
Dressed  bulls  are  easily  recognized  by  the  heavy  neck  and  heavy 
shoulders,  thick  rounds,  dark  color,  coarse-grained  flesh,  and  absence 
of  cod  fat.  They  have  rough  shape  and  the  bones  show  maturity. 
The  coarse  dark  flesh  has  no  marbling  as  a  rule,  and  but  few  bulls  are 
suitable  for  dressed  beef.  They  are  used  for  sausage  and  the  rounds 
are  made  into  smoked  beef  hams.  Many  stags  approach  steers  in 
form,  quality,  and  finish;  others  resemble  bulls. 

The  wholesale  cuts. V^ When  the  carcass  has  been  sufficiently  ripened 
in  the  cooler,  it  is  ready  for  cutting  up  into  the  wholesale  cuts.  The 
full  side  of  beef,  half  the  carcass,  has  the  appearance  shown  in  the 
following  diagram.  The  wholesale  cuts  are  indicated  by  the  dotted 
lines. 


^nM.^^^'y^- 

J 

f 

^ 

■   . 

\    "-^"^     L 

T3fB5           criucK 

A    1 

m 

G           ^ 

r 

1 
i 

1 

H 

V 

--4 

■ 

it 

~ 

Fig.  14. — Cuts   of   beef   indicated   in   the   live   animal. 


The  first  step  in  cutting  up  a  side  of  beef  is  to  "quarter"  or  "rib" 
it,  which  means  to  separate  the  side  into  forequarter  and  hindquarter. 
Sides  are  usually  quartered  or  ribbed  between  the  12th  and  13th  ribs, 
leaving  one  rib  on  the  hindquarter.  Such  a  hindquarter  is  called  a 
"regular  hindquarter,"  and  it  contains  from  47  to  49  per  cent  of  the 
weight  of  the  side,  and  the  forequarter  contains  from  51  to  53  per  cent, 
the  averages  being  about  48  per  cent  hinds  and  52  per  cent  fores. 
Hinds  are  quoted  about  25  per  cent  higher  than  fores  in  cold  months, 
and  up  to  40  per  cent  higher  in  summer.     This  variation  is  due  to  the 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


59 


large  amount  of  boiling  and  stewing  pieces  in  the  fores,  which  meats 
are  in  greater  demand  in  winter.  ^ 

The  hindquarter  is  divided  into  four  wholesale  cuts,  the  loin, 
round,  flank,  and  kidney.  The  kidney  is  not  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing diagram;  it  Hes  under  the  loin. 

The  forequarter  yields  five  wholesale  cuts,  the  rib,  chuck,  navel, 
brisket,  and  shank.  The  navel  and  brisket  are  usually  not  divided, 
but  are  sold  as  one  cut  called  the  "plate." 

The  loin  is  separated  from  the  round  at  the  hip  joint,  which  is  a 
considerable  distance  back  of  the  hip.  Thus  much  of  the  rump  is 
converted  into  loin  when  the  carcass  comes  under  the  knife  of  the 


Fig.  15. — Wholesale  cuts  of  beef.     1,  Chuck;  2,  shank;  3,  brisket;  4,  rib;  5, 
navel;  6,  loin;  7,  flank;  8,  round;  3  and  5,  plate;  6,  7,  and  8,  hindquarter. 


butcher.  The  shank  is  sawed  off  just  below  the  shoulder  joint.  The 
plate  is  taken  off  on  a  line  extending  from  about  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  rib  through  the  point  at  which  the  shank  is  removed.  The 
rib  and  chuck  are  separated  between  the  fifth  and  sixth  ribs.  This 
gives  five  ribs  to  the  chuck  and  seven  to  the  rib. 

A  720-pound  carcass  will  yield  a  360-pound  side.  When  the  side 
is  cut  up,  the  weights  of  the  various  wholesale  cuts,  their  wholesale 
prices  per  pound,  and  their  total  values  are  as  given  in  the  following 
table,  the  figures  for  weights  representing  averages  for  good  steer  car- 
casses.    Prices  are  given  for  No.  1,  No.  2,  and  No.  3  grades. 


111.  Bui.  147,  pp.  155,  156. 


60 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


Weights, 

prices, 

and  values  of  wholesale  cuts  of  beef 

Wholesale 

Wts. 
in 
lbs. 

wts. 

in 
per 
cent 

Price  per  lb.,  cents 

Total  value  of  cut 

cuts 

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

Round          

80 
65 
18 
35 
50 
90 
11 
11 

22 
18 

5 

10 

14 

25 

3 

3 

14 
35 

5 
26 

9 
13 

5 
10 

13 
30 

5 
20 

8 
11 

5 
10 

11 

13 
4 

10 
5 
7 
4 

10 

$11.20 
22.75 

.90 

9.10 

4.50 

11.70 

.55 
1.10 

$10,.40 

19.50 

.90 

7.00 

4.00 

9.90 

.55 

1.10 

$8.80 

Loin 

8.45 

Flank 

.72 

Rib 

3.50 

Plate 

2.50 

Chuck 

6.30 

Shank 

.44 

Kidney 

1.10 

Total 

360 

100 

17.2 

14.8 

8.8 

$61.80 

$53.35 

$31.81 

High-priced  and  low-priced  cuts. — The  average  price  for  the  entire 
No.  1  carcass  is,  then,  17.2  cents  per  pound.  From  the  foregoing  table 
it  is  seen  that  the  loin  and  rib  constitute  28  per  cent  of  the  carcass 
weight,  but  bring  51  per  cent  of  the  total  return  from  the  sale  of  the 
cuts  from  the  No.  1  carcass;  and  that  the  loin,  rib,  and  round  constitute 
half  of  the  carcass  weight,  but  bring  70  per  cent  of  the  return  from  the 
sale  of  the  wholesale  cuts.  The  180  pounds  of  loin,  rib,  and  round 
have  an  average  price  of  23.9  cents  per  pound,  while  the  remainder  of 
the  side,  also  weighing  180  pounds,  brings  an  average  of  10.4  cents. 
Hence  the  packer  wants  cattle  as  highly  developed  in  back,  loin,  rump, 
and  round  as  possible.  Buyers  of  cattle  for  slaughter  emphasize  this 
point.  They  want  cattle  smoothly  and  heavily  fleshed  in  all  parts, 
and  especially  in  the  four  parts  mentioned.  The  selling  price  of  a  load 
of  cattle  is  greatly  dependent  on  this  feature. 

Note  that  there  is  much  less  variation  in  price  between  No.  1  and 
No.  3  rounds  than  between  the  corresponding  grades  of  loins  or  ribs. 
The  No.  1  loin  has  a  total  value  twice  as  great  as  the  No.  1  round,  but 
the  No.  3  round  has  a  greater  total  value  than  the  No.  3  loin.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  all  grades  of  rounds  contain  but  little  fat,  whereas 
loins  and  ribs  of  the  various  grades  show  a  vast  difference  in  finish. 
In  other  words  there  is  much  less  difference  in  the  quality  and  finish  of 
the  rounds  yielded  by  fat  and  thin  cattle  than  there  is  in  the  quality 
and  finish  of  the  loins  or  ribs. 

Why  loin,  rib,  and  round  are  in  greater  demand. — The  loin  and 
rib  bring  high  prices  as  compared  to  other  parts  of  the  carcass  because 
of  their  superior  tenderness,  marbling,  and  palatability,  combined  with 
attractive  appearance.  The  round  brings  a  good  price  because  it  con- 
tains so  much  lean  and  so  little  bone  and  outside  fat.  Other  parts  of 
the  carcass  are  as  nutritious  as  the  loin,  rib,  and  round,  but  are  diflicult 
to  cook  in  such  a  way  that  they  appeal  to  us  as  do  the  porterhouse, 
sirloin,  and  rib  roast.  But  a  carcass  will  yield  only  so  much  of  these, 
hence  the  great  variation  in  the  price  of  the  various  wholesale  cuts. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  61 

It  is  perhaps  well  that  there  are  cheap  cuts  of  meat  and  cheap  carcasses, 
for  there  is  a  great  percentage  of  population  not  able  to  buy  any  other 
kind.  The  packer  does  not  want  all  beef  to  be  of  highest  quality.  He 
must  take  care  of  the  second-  and  third-class  trade  as  well  as  the  fancy 
trade.  But  the  producer  of  market  cattle  must  aim  to  produce  the 
highest  quality  of  product,  for  this  work  requires  skill,  and  skill  always 
commands  a  higher  reward  than  unskilled  effort.  Anybody  can  pro- 
duce medium  or  inferior  beef,  and  the  price  obtained  is  in  proportion. 

Grades  of  beef  cuts. — As  previously  shown,  carcasses  vary  in 
respect  to  (1)  size,  (2)  shape,  (3)  thickness  of  fleshing,  (4)  thickness 
of  external  fat,  (5)  marbling,  (6)  color  of  lean  meat,  (7)  color  of  fat, 
(8)  grain  of  meat,  (9)  flintiness  of  bones,  and  (10)  size  of  bones.  The 
butcher  or  packer  is  interested  in  all  these  things,  for  each  is  of  con- 
siderable importance.  The  packer  grades  the  wholesale  cuts  of  beef, 
as  they  vary  in  these  points,  into  No.  1,  No.  2,  and  No.  3  grades.  No.  1 
cuts  bring  the  highest  price,  and  between  No.  I's  and  No.  3's  there  is 
a  marked  difference.  These  three  grades  are  all  used  on  the  butcher's 
block.  Cuts  from  inferior  carcasses  not  suitable  for  block  use,  are 
called  "strippers;"  these  are  manufactured  into  boneless  cuts,  barreled 
beef,  and  sausage. 

Conclusions. — The  study  of  the  beef  carcass  therefore  teaches: 

1.  That  well-bred  cattle  yield  the  best  carcasses  and  bring  the 
highest  price, 

2.  The  market  wants  young,  highly  finished  cattle. 

3.  Steers  yield  the  most  desirable  carcasses. 

4.  The  best  results  come  from  a  method  of  management  which 
offers  no  chance  for  a  setback  during  growth  and  fattening. 

5.  The  breeder  and  feeder  of  beef  cattle  should  secure  as  high 
development  of  loin,  back,  and  hindquarter  as  possible. 

6.  To  bring  a  good  price,  cattle  must  dress  high. 

7.  To  dress  high,  cattle  must  be  thickly  fleshed,  free  from  paunch- 
iness,  and  good  in  quality. 

8.  Broadly  speaking,  heredity  regulates  the  lean  meat,  and  man 
regulates  the  fat. 

9.  The  feeding  of  mature  cattle  is  almost  entirely  a  fattening 
process. 

10.  Fatness  is  desirable  because  it  adds  weight,  makes  perfect 
ripening  possible,  gives  tenderness  and  juiciness  to  the  meat,  and  in- 
creases the  dressing  percentage. 

11.  Cattle  may  be  made  too  fat. 

12.  Carcasses  vary  widely  in  weight,  shape,  thickness  of  fleshing, 
thickness  of  outside  fat,  marbling,  color  of  lean,  color  of  fat,  grain  of 
meat,  and  size  and  hardness  of  bones. 


62  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

13.  Ancestry,  age,  sex,  feed,  and  care  determine  what  sort  of  a 
carcass  an  animal  will  yield. 

14.  Half  of  the  carcass  meets  with  strong  demand  and  sells  high, 
while  the  remainder  sells  low. 

15.  There  is  demand  for  carcasses  of  all  weights,  but  the  strongest 
demand  is  for  handy- weight  carcasses  from  cattle  weighing  1,100  to 
1,300  pounds. 

16.  To  secure  the  greatest  returns,  the  feeder  should  send  his 
cattle  to  market  well  done  after  a  short  feeding  period,  but  not  in  an 
excessively  fat  condition  resulting  from  long  continued  feeding. 


CHAPTER  III 

PACKING  HOUSE  BY-PRODUCTS  FROM  CATTLE 

When  slaughtered,  the  average  steer  yields  over  40  per  cent  of 
offal.  In  the  early  days  of  the  packing  industry  the  only  by-products 
of  a  beef  animal  which  received  attention  from  packers  were  hide, 
tallow,  and  tongue.  The  remainder  of  the  offal  was  either  thrown 
away  or  sold  for  almost  nothing.  In  some  instances,  packers  even  paid 
for  the  carting  away  of  offal.  In  a  short  time  glue  works,  fertilizer 
works,  soap  factories,  oil  and  tallow  factories  sprang  up  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  packing  plants  and  grew  to  be  large  industries.     Soon  the 


Fig.  16. — How  by-products  reduce  dressed  beef  prices. 

packing  plants  went  into  the  soap  business  for  themselves,  then  into 
the  glue  business,  the  fertilizer  business,  and  so  on,  until  today  packing 
house  by-products  are  numbered  by  the  score  from  what  was  formerly 
mere  waste.  The  modern  packing  house  is  living  and  depending  for 
profits  on  what  the  packing  industry  of  early  times  was  throwing 
away.  The  utilization  of  by-products  is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why 
packers  are  able  to  compete  so  successfully  with  the  local  butchers  of 
the  country.  Were  it  not  for  this  conversion  of  waste  material  into 
saleable  form,  the  wholesale  price  of  beef  would  be  considerably  higher 
than  under  existing  conditions.  This  is  clearly  illustrated  by  the  ac- 
companying graph. 

C3 


64  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Average  yields  from  steers. — A  Chicago  packer  has  computed 
from  numerous  tests,  the  following  weights  and  percentages  of  yields 
from  a  steer: 

Pounds  Per  cent  of 

live  weight 

Live  weight 1,200 

Carcass 700  58.3 

Hide 75  6.2 

Head,  feet,  knees 45  3.7 

Butter-fat 80  6.6 

Liver 12  1.0 

Heart 3  0.25 

Lungs 20  1.6 

Tongue 5  0.41 

Cheek  meat 5  0.41 

Rough  tallow  and  entrails 84  7.0 

Liquid  blood 46  3.8 

Paunch  and  contents 106  8.8 

Lips  and  weasand  meat 4  0.3 

Tail,  bungs,  and  casings 15  1.2 

Total  offal 500  41.27 

Totals 1,200  99.57 

The  foregoing  weights  and  percentages  are  for  "green"  or  "warm" 
products  at  time  of  slaughter,  no  allowance  being  made  for  shrinkage 
in  weight  of  carcass  in  cooling,  shrinkage  of  the  hide  in  curing,  and 
evaporation  of  moisture  and  shrinkage  in  converting  other  parts  into 
finished  by-products.  The  Commercial  Research  Department  of  Swift 
and  Company,  Chicago,  111.,  reports^  that  on  the  average  about  55 
per  cent  of  a  steer  is  beef,  and  that  the  average  1,000-pound  steer 
yields  about  550  pounds  of  beef  and  about  150  pounds  of  finished  by- 
products. The  remaining  300  pounds  is  accounted  for  in  evaporation, 
shrinkage,  and  waste  in  manufacturing  the  green  by-products  into 
finished  by-products. 

Comparative  value  of  carcass  and  by-products. — Edward  N.  Went- 
worth  of  Armour's  Livestock  Bureau  states  ^  that  for  the  quarter  year 
ending  June  28,  1920,  Armour  and  Company  killed  201,213  cattle, 
omitting  calves,  at  its  plants  in  Chicago,  Kansas  City,  St.  Louis, 
Omaha,  Fort  Worth,  Sioux  City,  St.  Joseph,  St.  Paul,  and  Denver. 
From  these  animals  the  average  value  of  the  carcass  was  $90.60  per 
head,  hide  $14.23,  and  all  other  by-products  $7.73.  Expressed  in  per- 
centages, the  carcass  represented  80.5  per  cent  of  the  total  value,  the 
hide  12.6  per  cent,  and  all  other  by-products  6.9  per  cent.     Nearly  43 


1  Studies  in  Live  Stock  Marketing,  The  Effects  of  Beef  and  By-Product  Values 
Upon  Cattle  Prices,  Swift  and  Company,  Chicago,  Sept.,  1921. 

2  Monthly  Letter  to  Animal  Husbandmen,  The  Source  and  Use  of  Packing 
House  By-Products,  Armour  and  Company,  Chicago,  Aug.  1,  1920. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


65 


per  cent  of  the  value  of  "all  other  by-products,"  or  $3.32,  was  in  the 
oleo  fats.  ^ 

That  these  ratios  are  not  constant  is  shown  by  figures  published 
by  Swift  and  Company  comparing  values  in  May,  1921,  with  those  of 
May,  1920.  The  1920  values  substantiate  those  of  Armour  and  Com- 
pany given  above.  The  1921  values,  however,  show  a  decrease  of  25 
per  cent  in  carcass  value,  and  a  decrease  of  71  per  cent  in  value  of  by- 
products, so  that  the  carcass  then  represented  91  per  cent  of  the  total 
value,  and  the  by-products,  including  the  hide,  only  9  per  cent.  The 
table  presented  on  page  67  shows  that  the  percentage  of  total  returns 
derived  from  by-products  by  Swift  and  Company  was  23  per  cent  in 
1915,  but  only  10  per  cent  in  1921. 

Values  of  cattle  hides.  j/As  shown  in  the  preceding  discussion,  the 
most  valuable  of  all  the  by-products  of  the  beef  animal  is  the  hide. 
Cattle  hides  increased  in  value  enormously  from  1913  to  1919  inclusive, 
due  in  large  part  to  the  unprecedented  demand  for  leather  during  the 
World  War.  This  is  shown  in  the  following  table  of  prices  from  the 
Chicago  Daily  Hide  and  Tallow  Bulletin:  ^ 


Average  yearly  prices  of 


steer  and  heavy  cow  hides 


Packer  hides 

Country  hides 

Year 

Heavy 
native 
steers 

Heavy 
native 
cows 

Heavy 

steers 

Heavy 
cows 

1905 

$14.36 
15.66 
24.03 
26.43 
32.37 
29.88 
39.76 
31.73 
14.21 

$13.18 
13.78 
23.54 
24.97 
31.69 
27.41 
37.72 
31.51 
12.64 

$12.42 
12.15 
19.52 
20.99 
25.65 
23.44 
31.98 
23.89 
9.40 

$11.90 

1910. 

11.20 

1915 

18.96 

1916 

20.22 

1917 

23.25 

1918 

21.12 

1919      

29.97 

1920          

21.11 

1921 

8.09 

There  are  two  great  classes  of  cattle  hides,  packer  hides  and  coun- 
try hides.  Packer  hides  are  much  more  valuable  and  command  higher 
prices  because  they  are  uniform  in  shape,  cure,  and  handling,  much 
freer  from  cuts  and  gashes,  and  are  readily  available  in  large  numbers 
of  the  various  classes  and  grades. 

The  fats.-^Next  in  value  to  the  hide  stand  the  fats  derived  from 
the  abdominal  region.     Cattle  fats  bear  the  general  name  of  "tallow." 

^Wentworth  reports  that  701,983  veal  calves  slaughtered  during  1919  returned 
$23.01  per  carcass  and  $1.31  for  the  by-products  per  calf.  The  carcass  represented 
94.6  per  cent  of  the  total  value,  and  the  by-products  5.4  per  cent.  The  low  per- 
centage value  of  the  by-products  of  veal  calves  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
skin  is  sold  on  the  carcass. 

^As  quoted  by  Wentworth,  Munnecke,  and  Brown:  Progressive  Beef  Cattle 
Raising,  Armour  and  Company,  Chicago,  1922,  p.  80. 


66  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Out  of  the  finer  and  better  of  these  fats,  called  "butter  fats,"  is  made 
oleomargarine  or  butterine.  This  food  product  appeared  in  1866  and 
has  since  come  into  extensive  use.  The  butter  fats  average  in  weight 
from  60  to  75  pounds  to  the  animal,  but  a  large  percentage  of  this 
weight  is  lost  in  processing.  One  Chicago  plant  has  a  capacity  of  15 
tons  of  oleomargarine  in  a  day,  and  in  a  year  has  put  out  between  8 
and  9  million  pounds.  Inedible  tallow  fat  is  manufactured  into  soaps, 
glycerine,  leather  dressing,  lubricants,  illuminating  oil,  candles,  and 
other  products. 

Other  by-products.-r-Lean  meat  trimmings  are  made  into  sausage. 
Hair  is  used  in  plastering,  manufacture  of  brushes  and  felt,  and  for 
other  purposes.  The  horns  and  hoofs,  at  one  time  considered  a  rubbish 
nuisance,  are  now  very  valuable  for  the  manufacture  of  combs,  knife, 
cane,  and  umbrella  handles,  and  many  other  articles.  Dried  blood  is 
made  into  blood  meal.  Fibrous  matter  and  scraps,  after  all  the  grease 
has  been  extracted,  are  ground  to  meat  meal  tankage,  widely  used  as 
a  hog  feed.  From  all  bone  and  cartilage  the  basic  substance  is  ex- 
tracted from  which  glue  is  made.  Fully  18  per  cent  of  dry  bones  is 
glue,  the  rest  is  ground  to  fertilizer.  One  Chicago  packing  plant  turns 
out  8  million  pounds  of  glue  annually.  From  the  intestines  come 
drum  snares,  sausage  casings,  brewer's  hose,  and  snuff  packages,  while 
the  bladder  yields  packages  for  putty,  snuff,  and  lard.  From  the 
glands  come  various  pharmaceutical  preparations,  such  as  extract  of 
thyroid,  pituitary  liquid,  pineal  substance,  pancreatin,  adrenahn, 
pepsin,  rennet,  etc.  The  tail  furnishes  hair  for  mattresses  and  up- 
holstering, and  the  bone  and  meat  are  used  for  making  ox-tail  soup. 
Shank  and  thigh  bones  are  cut  into  buttons,  knife  and  tooth-brush 
handles,  and  other  articles.  The  tongue,  head  and  cheek  meat,  tripe, 
brains,  heart,  liver,  and  sweet-breads  are  sold  for  food.  Tripe  is 
pickled  stomachs.  Sweet-breads  are  the  thymus  and  pancreatic  glands. 
The  contents  of  the  stomach  are  burned  under  packing  house  boilers 
and  the  ashes  are  used  for  fertilizer.  Every  part  of  the  live  animal  is 
utilized.  Many  of  the  finished  by-products  are  manufactured  by  the 
packers,  and  other  by-products  are  sold  partly  processed  to  other  firms 
for  final  processing  into  finished  products. 

The  price  of  live  cattle  depends  upon  the  price  the  packer  can  get 
for  beef  and  by-products  after  taking  into  account  his  expenses  of 
operation.  In  the  following  table  it  will  be  noted  that  the  packer  paid 
more  for  the  live  animal  than  he  received  from  the  sale  of  the  beef 
during  the  years  1915  to  1920  inclusive.  But  in  1921  and  1922  marked 
decrease  in  value  of  by-products,  accompanied  by  increase  in  freight 
rates,  made  it  impossible  for  the  packer  to  pay  as  much  for  the  live 
animal  as  he  received  for  the  beef. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  67 

Averages  of  Swift  and  Company's  cattle,  beef,  and  by-products  operations,  for  fiscal 
years  1915-1922,  ending  November  5^ 

Cost  of  Total 

Fiscal  live  Beef  By-product         expenses  Profit 

years  animal  proceeds  returns  including         and  loss 

freight 

1915 $72.49  $63.28  $18.58  $  7.73  $1.64 

1916 73.68  63.98  19.08  7.73  1.65 

1917 84.45  68.97  24.09  7.32  1.29 

1918 92.70  81.45  22.06  9.79  1.02 

1919 102.82  88.21  25.59  11.68  .70  loss 

1920 93.85  86.31  21.17  13.69  .06  loss 

1921 67.53  75.32  8.51  15.17  1.13 

1922 64.72  67.25  13.45  13.46  2.52 

Note  that  high  freight  rates  affect  the  beef  producer  in  two  ways. 
They  not  only  increase  the  cost  of  marketing  cattle,  but  they  also 
lessen  the  price  the  packer  can  pay  for  cattle  after  they  reach  the 
market.  The  packer  ships  carlots  of  dressed  beef  and  other  products 
from  his  plants  to  his  branch  houses  located  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
High  freight  rates  on  dressed  beef  shipments  operate  to  increase  the 
cost  of  beef  to  the  consumer  and  to  decrease  the  price  paid  the  producer 
for  the  live  animals.  Higher  costs  to  the  consumer  tend  to  lessen  beef 
consumption.  Thus,  when  freight  rates  are  high,  the  producer  is  con- 
fronted by  higher  marketing  expenses,  a  lower  price,  and  a  lessened 
demand.  Freight  rates  are  controlled  by  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission.  The  packer  is  protected  against  high  rates  to  a  con- 
siderable degree  because  his  freight  bill  is  passed  along  to  producers 
and  consumers.  The  consumer  has  no  recourse  except  to  eat  less  beef, 
and  the  producer  has  no  recourse  except  to  discontinue  beef  production 
if  it  proves  unprofitable. 

Do  packers  control  prices?— In  the  foregoing  paragraph  the  writer 
does  not  intend  to  intimate  that  the  packer  can  at  will  mark  down  the 
price  of  cattle  and  mark  up  the  price  of  beef.  There  is  competition 
among  packers  and  there  is  competition  between  packers  and  local 
butchers  who  do  their  own  slaughtering.  Even  assuming,  as  has  been 
charged,  that  some  of  the  large  packing  companies  are  combined  to 
control  prices,  there  is  a  narrow  limit  beyond  which  they  cannot  go 
without  injury  to  themselves.  If  they  fix  the  price  of  dressed  beef  too 
high  they  greatly  lessen  beef  consumption.  If  they  fix  the  price  of 
live  cattle  too  low  they  greatly  lessen  production.  In  either  case  they 
lessen  the  volume  of  their  business,  and  volume  of  business  is  the  most 
important  factor  in  the  welfare  of  the  large  packing  companies. 
Packers  are  equipped  with  immense  plants  and  employ  large  numbers 
of  people.  In  order  to  make  a  profit  they  must  keep  the  wheels 
turning;  they  must  have  a  constant  and  adequate  supply  of  live  animals 
and  a  constant  outlet  for  beef.     Fully  95  per  cent  of  the  beef  produced 

1  Swift  and  Company  Year  BcJbk,  1923,  p.  16. 


68  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

in  the  United  States  is  sold  in  the  fresh  state.  Fresh  beef  is  a  perish- 
able product  which  must  be  kept  moving  out  in  a  continuous  stream 
from  the  packing  plant.  If  the  packer  paid  the  producer  enough  to 
insure  a  supply  of  animals  and  then  attempted  to  charge  so  high  a 
price  for  meats  as  to  insure  a  huge  profit  despite  restricted  volume  of 
business,  then  many  local  butchers  would  stop  buying  packers'  meats 
and  would  do  their  own  slaughtering,  and  farmers'  cooperative  packing 
plants  and  other  smaller  packers  would  at  once  take  advantage  of  the 
opportunity  to  capture  the  trade  by  pricing  their  beef  below  the  high 
prices  demanded  by  the  large  companies. 

Suppose  that  packers  should  enter  into  a  combination  with  pro- 
ducers, agreeing  to  charge  higher  prices  for  beef  and  pay  higher  prices 
for  cattle.  If  this  were  attempted  the  market  soon  would  be  flooded 
with  cattle  far  beyond  the  capacity  of  the  packing  plants  or  the  con- 
suming public,  and  it  would  be  impossible  to  maintain  the  higher  price 
for  either  beef  or  live  cattle. 

Through  very  high  efficiency  in  packing  methods  and  business 
administration,  and  small  profits  on  sales,  certain  packing  companies 
were  enabled  to  underbid  their  competitors  and  build  up  large  plants 
and  a  large  volume  of  business.  Efficiency  and  narrow  margins  are 
today  just  as  essential  in  retaining  this  large  volume  of  business  as 
they  were  in  developing  it. 

By  ingenuity  and  enterprise  the  huge  packing  business  of  this 
country  has  been  developed  through  continual  improvement  in  methods 
of  slaughtering,  handling,  and  distributing  meats  and  in  methods  of 
utilizing  animal  by-products,  until  the  market  for  our  surplus  meat 
production  has  been  made  world-wide  and  a  constant,  open,  cash 
market  for  live  animals  has  been  made  possible. 

From  the  live-stock  producer's  viewpoint  it  is  best  that  we  have 
in  this  country  a  large,  highly  efficient,  reasonably  profitable,  and  stable 
packing  industry.  If  packing  companies  were  continually  going  into 
the  hands  of  receivers  because  of  bad  management  or  for  other  reasons, 
it  would  not  be  beneficial  to  either  producers  or  consumers. 

Large  packers  are  continually  in  competition  with  small  packers, 
and  all  packers  are  continually  in  competition  with  retailers  who  do 
their  own  slaughtering.  If  any  combination  of  packing  companies 
fixes  the  prices  of  live  animals,  they  have  done  a  mighty  poor  job  of  it 
in  those  years  in  which  cattle  producers  have  made  large  profits. 

Summary. — It  would  seem  that  the  packer  is  now  doing  his  share 
in  supplying  the  people  with  good  meat  at  a  fair  price.  There  can  be 
no  further  expansion  in  the  line  of  getting  more  product  out  of  the 
animal,  the  limit  in  that  direction  having  been  reached.  Further  im- 
provement in  the  quality  and  cheapening  of  the  price  of  beef  rests 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  69 

largely  with  the  grower  or  producer  of  live  stock.  Much  may  be  done 
on  the  production  side  of  the  business  to  bring  about  these  results. 
More  feed  must  be  grown  per  acre,  feeding  must  be  done  more  econom- 
ically, and  better  animals  must  be  bred  and  fed  for  the  market  in  order 
that  greater  returns  may  be  secured  for  the  feed  consumed.  The  scrub 
animal  must  be  eliminated  through  increase  in  numbers  and  extension 
of  territory  of  the  improved  breeds  of  cattle.  Thus  more  good  pure- 
bred sires  will  be  made  available  for  grading  up  the  common  cattle  of 
the  country,  and  meats  of  better  quality  will  be  produced  at  lower  cost. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  VALUE  OF  TYPE  IN  BEEF  MAKING 

In  order  to  determine  just  what  advantages  are  possessed  by  the 
beef-type  steer  as  compared  with  the  dairy-tjrpe  steer,  some  experi- 
ments have  been  carried  out  which  have  resulted  in  interesting  findings. 
It  has  long  been  known  that  beef  steers  suit  feeders  and  butchers  better 
than  steers  of  dairy  breeding.  It  has  been  claimed  that  beef  steers 
gain  faster  in  proportion  to  feed  consumed,  that  they  fatten  more 
readily,  dress  out  higher,  yield  a  more  valuable  carcass,  and  hence 
bring  a  higher  price  on  the  market.  Experimental  results  have  upheld 
some  of  these  views  and  disproved  others. 

\^  In  1903,  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  ^  conducted  a  series  of  ex- 
periments dealing  with  the  comparative  merits  of  the  two  types  for 
beef  production.  The  object  was  to  provide  answers  to  the  following 
questions:  1.  Which  type  of  steer  makes  the  greater  gains  from 
pounds  of  feed  consumed?  2.  In  the  gains  made,  what  differences 
exist  between  the  two  types  as  to  distribution  of  such  gains  over  the 
body?  3.  Which  type  of  steer  yields  the  greater  profit  to  the  feeder? 
4,  Which  type  shows  the  greater  amount  of  offal?  5.  Which  type 
carries  the  higher  percentage  of  tallow?  6.  Which  tjT^e  carries  the 
higher  percentage  of  valuable  cuts?  7.  In  considering  the  various 
commercial  cuts  from  the  two  types,  what  differences  are  to  be  found 
as  regards  weight,  thickness,  covering  of  fat,  marbling,  color,  and  fine- 
ness of  grain?  8.  Is  the  low  price  paid  for  dairy-type  steers  due  to 
prejudice,  or  to  an  actual  inferiority  in  the  value  of  the  carcasses? 

Four  beef-type  steers  and  four  dairy-type  steers  were  put  on  feed 
January  1,  1903,  and  fed  one  year.  The  steers  were  on  dry  feed  during 
the  entire  time,  so  that  the  exact  amount  of  feed  consumed  by  each 
lot  might  be  known.  Of  the  four  beef  steers,  two  were  high-grade 
Herefords,  and  two,  purebred  Angus.  The  four  dairy  steers  consisted 
of  two  Jerseys  and  two  Holsteins.  The  ages  at  the  beginning  of  the 
test  were  approximately  as  follows:  Average  of  Herefords,  16  months; 
of  Angus,  18  months;  of  Holsteins,  24  months;  and  of  Jerseys,  18 
months.  The  feeds  given  were  mixed  hay,  sorghum  (during  July  and 
August),  corn  meal,  bran,  oil  meal,  and  gluten  feed.  The  conditions 
were  alike  for  all  the  animals,  and  the  feed  was  the  same,  but  each 
animal  was  given  all  he  would  clean  up  regularly.     At  the  end  of  the 


ilowa  Bui.  20. 

70 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  71 

feeding  test  the  cattle  were  bought  in  separate  lots  by  the  head  buyer 
of  a  packing  company  of  Des  Moines,  Iowa.  The  prices  given  were 
the  market  prices  for  such  steers,  December  28,  1903. 

Following  is  a  summary  of  the  first  part  of  the  investigation: 

Beef  Dairy 

steers  steers 

Average  weight  at  beginning,  lbs 685  574 

Average  gain  per  steer,  lbs 606  598 

Average  value  of  feed  consumed  per  steer $47.27  $45.18 

Average  cost  of  one  pound  of  gain 7.81c  7.63c 

Percentage  of  dressed  weight  in  slaugter  test 61.7  57.15 

Selling  value,  average  price  per  pound 4.888c  3.752c 

The  dairy-type  steers  made  their  gains  at  a  trifle  less  cost  per 
pound  than  did  the  beef  steers,  indicating  that  their  digestive  and 


Fig.  17. — Dairy-type  steer.  Jersey  steer  in  the  Iowa  experiment  at  end  of 
feeding  period.  Note  the  slack  crops  and  fore-rib,  paunchiness,  and  lack  of  muscling 
in  this  steer. 

assimilative  functions  were  slightly  more  vigorous  in  this  instance. 
The  gains  made  by  the  dairy  steers  were  not  distributed  on  the  body; 
in  such  a  way  as  to  command  the  highest  prices.  The  beef-type  steers 
made  a  large  proportion  of  their  gains  on  the  back,  loin,  and  hind- 
quarters, while  the  dairy-type  steers  showed  but  little  increase  in  thick- 
ness on  these  parts. 

The  beef-type  steers  were  far  more  profitable  to  the  feeder,  for 
although  both  lots  made  approximately  the  same  total  gains,  and  al- 
though the  average  of  the  four  dairy-type  steers  compared  with  the 
average  of  the  four  beef-type  steers  shows  that  the  former  made  his 


72  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

600  pounds  of  gain  cheaper  by  $1.70  than  did  the  latter,  nevertheless 
this  600  pounds  gain  of  the  beef  steer  brought  $7.18  more  on  the 
market.  When  $1.70  is  deducted  from  $7.18  there  is  left  $5.48  profit 
in  favor  of  the  beef  animals,  or  a  total  of  nearly  $22  for  the  four  head. 
Nor  does  this  represent  all  the  financial  advantage  of  the  beef-type 
steer,  for  the  value  of  the  initial  weight  (685  lbs. )  of  the  beef  steer  was 
increased  to  a  greater  degree  by  feeding  than  was  the  value  of  the 
initial  weight  of  the  dairy-type  steer.  The  report  of  the  experiment 
furnishes  no  initial  valuations,  hence  a  complete  accounting  in  this 
regard  cannot  be  made. 

Following  are  the  weights  of  the  cuts  from  the  carcasses,  expressed 
in  percentages  of  the  total  carcass  weight ;  also  the  wholesale  and  re- 
tail prices  of  these  cuts: 

Weights  in  Wholesale  price  Retail  price 

percentages  per  pound  per  pound 

Beef  Dairy  Beef  Dairy  Beef  Dairy 

Ribs 9.27  8.80  12.25  10.25        17.6          16. 

Chuck 25.97  26.78  5.5  5.1          10.            10. 

Brisket 5.92  5.72  4.  4.             6.             6. 

Plate 3.85  3.48  4.  4.             6.             6. 

Navel 3.00  2.72  4.  4. 

Shank  meat 53  .66  5.  5. 

Shank  beef 2.60  3.04  2.5  2.5 

Loin 17.55        17.09        14.9  12.5 

Round 17.74  18.88  7.             7. 

Rump 5.19  4.78          7.             7. 

Flank  steak 66  .58  10.  10. 

Flank  beef 2.16  1.67          5.              5. 

Cod  fat 1.98  1.56         3.5           3.5 

Suet 3.48  4.18  3.5           3.5 

NOTE:     S,  sirloin;  P,  porterhouse. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  carcasses  were  cut  up  into  a  greater 
number  of  parts  than  result  from  the  regular  method  of  cutting  ex- 
plained in  the  previous  chapter,  but  the  differences  in  the  cuts  are  not 
great  enough  to  prevent  a  full  understanding  of  the  above  table. 

On  the  basis  of  the  above  figures  we  are  able  to  determine  the 
relative  profits  of  the  beef-  and  dairy-type  steers  to  the  wholesaler  or 
packer.     This  is  shown  as  follows: 

Beef  steers  Dairy  steers 

Cost  of  4  live  steers $242.52  $170.64 

Cost  of  killing  at  $1.50  per  head 6.00  6.00 


6. 

6. 

6. 

6. 

3. 

2.8 

'S.17.6 

16. 

tP.23.1 

21. 

12. 

12. 

10. 

10. 

12.5 

12.5 

6. 

6. 

3.5 

3.5 

3.5 

3.5 

Cost  of  carcasses  and  offal $248.52  $176.64 

Received  from  sale  of  hides,  tallow,  and  tongue 36.13  30.27 


Cost  of  dressed  beef $212.39  $146.37 

Cost  of  dressed  beef  per  lb 0715  .0583 

Actual  wholesale  returns  when  beef  was  sold 232.61  179.83 

Margin  between  cost  and  selling  price  of  dressed  beef 20.22  33.46 

The  last  item  in  the  above  table  is  interesting.     It  shows  that 
there  was  $20.22  margin  for  the  beef- type  steers  and  $33.46  for  the 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  73 

dairy-type  steers,  or  a  difference  of  $13.24  in  favor  of  the  dairy-type 
cattle.  If  this  difference  in  margins  were  appHed  to  the  live-weight 
price  of  the  dairy-type  steers,  their  price  per  cwt.  would  have  been  28 
cents  higher;  in  other  words  the  dairy-type  steers  would  have  brought 
4  cents  per  pound,  instead  of  3>^  cents. 

At  a  meat  demonstration  in  January,  1904,  conducted  by  Mr. 
John  Gosling,  some  further  important  differences  were  brought  out 
between  the  cuts  from  the  dairy-  and  beef-type  carcasses.  Mr.  Gosling 
is  recognized  as  one  of  the  leading  authorities  on  meats  in  this  country. 
In  grading  the  carcasses,  he  placed  three  of  the  beef-tj^De  carcasses  as 


Fig.  18. — Dairy-type  steer.     Holstein  steer  in  the  Iowa  experiment.     His  flat 
ribs,  ridgy  back,  and  angular  appearance  are  characteristic  of  steers  of  dairy  breeding. 

No.  1,  and  the  other  as  No.  2.  Two  of  the  dairy-type  carcasses  were 
graded  No.  2,  and  the  other  two  as  No.  3.  The  color  of  the  flesh  was 
fairly  good  in  all  eight  of  the  carcasses,  although  in  the  Jersey  car- 
casses it  was  somewhat  dark.  The  external  color  (or  color  of  the  fat) 
was  good  in  all  except  one,  a  Jersey,  which  killed  very  yellow.  The 
other  Jersey  killed  very  white,  although,  as  a  rule,  carcasses  of  Jerseys 
or  grade  Jerseys  are  very  yellow.  The  spines  in  the  backbone  of  the 
dairy-type  carcasses  were  hard,  indicating  the  early  maturity  of  the 
dairy  type.  They  were  much  more  cartilaginous  in  the  beef-type  car- 
casses, although  the  ages  were  nearly  the  same.  The  fore-ribs  from  the 
dairy-type  steers  were  light  and  lacking  in  marbling.  The  Holstein 
ribs  lacked  depth,  and  were  very  irregular  and  rough.  The  dairy-type 
steers  carried  more  kidney  fat  or  suet;  this  is  a  cheap  product  which 


74  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

increases  the  dressing  percentage,  but  reduces  the  value  of  the  carcass 
when  excessive. 

The  answers  to  the  questions  asked  at  the  beginning  of  the  experi- 
ment are,  therefore,  as  follows:  1.  The  gains  from  pounds  of  feed 
consumed  are  practically  the  same  for  both  the  beef  and  dairy  types. 
2.  The  beef -type  steer  uses  his  gains  to  slight  advantage  as  compared 
with  the  dairy-type,  placing  a  slightly  greater  percentage  of  his  gains 
in  the  valuable  cuts.  3.  The  beef-tj^De  steer  yields  the  greater  profit 
to  the  feeder.  4.  The  dairy-type  steer  shows  the  greater  amount  of 
offal.  5.  The  dairy-type  steer  carries  the  higher  percentage  of  tallow. 
6.  As  regards  the  percentage  of  valuable  cuts,  there  is  very  little  dif- 
ference; if  any,  it  is  in  favor  of  the  beef-type  steer.  7.  The  beef-type 
steer  yields  cuts  that  are  heavier,  thicker,  usually  covered  with  whiter 
fat,  nicer  in  marbling,  and  a  little  better  in  color  of  muscle.  There  is 
no  apparent  difference  in  fineness  of  grain.  8.  The  low  price  paid  for 
dairy  steers  may  be  due  partially  to  prejudice,  and  to  the  greater  ex- 
pense of  carrying  and  selling  the  low-grade  carcasses,  but  it  is  chiefly 
due  to  an  actual  inferiority  in  the  carcasses.  They  are  unsatisfactory 
to  the  consumer,  because  they  do  not  furnish  thick  and  well-marbled 
cuts;  they  are  unsatisfactory  to  the  butcher,  because  they  furnish  low- 
grade  carcasses  which  are  difficult  to  dispose  of;  and  they  are  decidedly 
unsatisfactory  to  the  feeder,  because  they  yield  him  little  or  no  profit, 
and  both  breeder  and  feeder  waste  their  time  in  producing  such  a  type 
of  steer  for  beef  purposes. 

In  an  earlier  experiment  at  the  Iowa  Station,  James  Wilson  and 
C.  F.  Curtiss  found  the  quantity  of  fat  about  the  internal  organs  of 
fat  steers  of  the  various  breeds  to  be  as  follows: 

Breed  Average  dressed       Loose  Per  cent  of 

weight  tallow         loose  tallow 

to  beef 

Shorthorn 1,092  145  13.3 

Hereford 1,022  129  12.6 

Red  Polled 990  125  12.6 

Galloway 1,088  147  13.5 

Angus 1,137  157  13.8 

Devon 815  123  15.0 

Swiss 1,017  119  11.7 

Holstein 862  155  17.9 

Jersey 880  166  18.8 

This  table  gives  further  evidence  of  the  tendency  of  the  dairy 
breeds  to  deposit  proportionately  more  fat  about  the  intestines,  paunch, 
kidneys,  and  caul.  Experiments  at  the  Kansas  Station  substantiate 
the  results  of  the  Iowa  investigations. 

Why  the  dairy  steer  lacks  thick  flesh. — The  experimental  results 
set  forth  above  emphasize  the  lack  of  thickness  in  the  cuts  from  the 
dairy  steer.     In  other  words,  the  dairy  steer  is  decidedly  lacking  in 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


75 


muscular  development.  Mr.  John  Gosling  has  continually  emphasized 
this  point  in  his  annual  meat  demonstrations  at  the  Iowa  State  College. 
He  has  conclusively  shown  that  there  is  a  very  marked  difference  in 
the  amount  of  muscle  or  lean  meat  present  at  birth  in  calves  of  dairy 
ancestry  as  contrasted  with  those  of  good  beef  breeding,  and  he  has 
also  shown  that  from  a  practical  standpoint,  at  least,  feeding  does  not 
increase  the  relative  proportion  of  muscle  in  the  make-up  of  an  animal. 
His  demonstration  in  January,  1918,  included  a  beef  calf  and  a  dairy 


Fig.  19. — Carcasses  of  beef  and  dairy  calves.  These  calves  were  slaughtered 
when  less  than  a  week  old.  Neither  carcass  showed  any  degree  of  fat.  Note  the 
muscling  in  round,  rump,  loin,  rib,  shoulder,  arm,  and  neck  of  the  beef  calf  on  the 
left  as  compared  to  the  dairy  calf  on  the  right. 


calf,  less  than  a  week  old,  which  were  not  selected  for  veals,  but  were 
used  to  demonstrate  the  vast  difference  in  the  natural  flesh  or  muscle 
present  at  birth  in  these  two  types  of  cattle.  The  accompanying 
illustrations  show  the  difference.  There  was  no  visible  fat  on  either 
of  them,  but  the  beef  calf  was  thick,  plump,  and  rounding,  with  muscles 
like  the  breast  of  a  quail,  while  the  dairy  calf  was  flat  and  thin  in  all 
parts.     The  beef  calf  was  thick  in  neck  and  arm,  broad  of  back  and 


76  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

loin,  full  in  rump,  bulging  in  thighs,  and  carried  his  beef  to  the  hocks. 
The  dairy  calf  was  scrawny  in  his  neck,  ridgy  along  the  spine,  narrow 
and  shabby  over  the  rump,  and  light  and  tapering  in  his  rounds.  The 
evidence  is  unquestionable.  Fat  can  be  put  on  by  feeding,  but  the 
muscle  comes  only  by  inheritance.  The  dairy  calf  is  "born  wrong" 
from  a  beef  standpoint,  and  no  known  method  of  feeding  and  manage- 
ment can  correct  its  deficiency. 

Henry  and  Morrison  of  the  Wisconsin  Station  discuss  the  com- 
parative merits  of  beef- type  and  dairy-type  steers  as  follows:  ^ 


Fig.  20.— Carcasses  of  beef  and  dairy  calves.  Back  view  of  carcasses  shown 
in  Fig.  19.  Beef  calf  on  left,  dairy  calf  on  right.  Note  the  rounds,  rumps,  loins, 
backs,  shoulders,  and  necks.  The  marked  difference  in  muscling  inherited  by  these 
two  calves  is  plainly  evident. 

"Beyond  that  which  can  be  expressed  in  figures  or  stated  percent- 
agely  lies  that  indefinable  something  described  by  the  word  'quality' 
which  enters  into  all  objects  of  barter.  No  one  can  compare  a  bunch 
of  well-fed  beef-bred  steers  with  one  representing  the  dairy  breeds  with- 
out being  impressed  by  a  difference  not  measured  by  the  scales 

The  matter  at  issue  may  be  illustrated  by  a  condition  in  the  fruit 


iFeeds  and  Feeding,  1915,  p.  443. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  77 

world:  No  orchardist  will  hold  that  the  Baldwin  apple  tree  necessarily 
grows  faster  than  the  seedling  apple  tree,  or  that  it  will  make  wood 
and  fruit  on  less  material  from  soil  and  air.  Neither  will  he  hold  that 
Baldwin  trees  necessarily  yield  more  barrels  of  fruit  than  seedlings, 
nor  that  a  given  measure  of  Baldwin  apples  contains  more  juice  or 
human  food  than  the  same  measure  of  common  seedling  apples.  Fruit 
growers  do  rightfully  assert,  however,  that  the  market  wants  Baldwin 
apples  and  will  pay  more  for  them  than  for  common  seedling  fruit, 
and  that  from  this  judgment  of  the  market,  be  it  reasonable  or  un- 
reasonable, there  is  no  appeal.  Beef  cattle  have  been  bred  for  meat 
production — it  would  be  passing  strange  if  they  did  not  excel  for  that 
purpose." 


CHAPTER  V 

AMERICAN  CATTLE  MARKETS 

Producers  of  beef  cattle  use  various  methods  of  marketing  their 
stock,  depending  largely  on  their  location  and  the  number  of  animals 
to  be  sold.     The  principal  methods  are  as  follows:  ^^X 

1.  Cattle  may  be  sold  to  the  local  stock  buyer  or  drover  for  ship- 
ment to  central  markets. 

2.  They  may  be  shipped  to  a  central  market  through  a  coopera- 
tive shipping  association  and  sold  at  the  market  by  a  commission 
firm  which  acts  as  the  association's  agent. 

3.  They  may  be  shipped  direct  by  the  producer  to  the  central 
market  and  sold  by  a  commission  firm  which  acts  as  his  agent. 

4.  They  may  be  sold  to  local  butchers  or  cattle  feeders. 

5.  They  may  be  sold  to  a  packer  buyer  in  the  country  or  shipped 
direct  to  the  packing  house. 

6.  They  may  be  slaughtered  on  the  farm  and  the  meat  consumed 
on  the  farm  or  sold  locally. 

In  addition  to  these  there  are  special  methods  of  marketing  such 
as  (a)  auction  sales,  (b)  selling  on  the  range  direct  to  buyers  from  a 
distance,  and  (c)  selling  on  mail  orders. 

Over  half  of  the  cattle  marketed  in  the  United  States  pass  through 
the  central  markets.  In  1917,  76  per  cent  were  marketed  in  this 
manner,  following  which  there  was  a  steady  decline  to  67  per  cent  in 
1921. 1  / 

The  large  cattle  markets'/of  the  United  States  are  located  in  the 
central  part  of  the  country.  With  the  West  and  Central  West  on  the 
one  hand  as  the  great  breeding  and  feeding  ground,  and  with  the  East 
on  the  other  as  the  chief  region  of  consumption,  it  is  logical  that  the 
large  markets  have  a  central  location.  The  estimated  center  of  beef 
production  in  the  United  States  is  in  central  Kansas,  and  the  center  of 
beef  consumption  is  in  western  Ohio,  over  700  miles  eastward.  Be- 
tween these  two  is  the  center  of  beef  slaughter  in  western  Illinois.  ^ 
Following  are  the  15  largest  cattle  markets  and  their  receipts  of  cattle, 
including  calves,  for  three  years:  ^ 


1  Sheets,  Baker,  Gibbons,  Stine,  and  Wilcox:  Our  Beef  Supply,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  278. 
2Ibid,  p.  315. 
3  Compiled  from  Drovers  Journal  Year  Book  of  Figures  for  1922. 

78 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  ,  79 

Receipts  of  cattle,  including  calves,  at  large  central  markets,  1920-1922 

Market  1922  1921  1920 

1.  Chicago 3,934,498  3,539,538  3,849,495 

2.  Kansas  City 2,983,094  2,469,442  2,500,166 

3.  Omaha 1,744,251  1,434,576  1,602,799 

4.  St.  Louis 1,400,333  1,077,260  1,253,550 

5.  St.  Paul 1,386,932  984,826  1,373,114 

6.  Fort  Worth 1,084,201  983,802  1,134,323 

7.  Pittsburgh 866,764  745,100  732,770 

8.  Sioux  City 746,983  620,373  751,658 

9.  Buffalo 637,349  609,063  676,676 

10.  St.  Joseph 654,552  558,040  642,899 

11.  Denver 656,245  481,502  616,565 

12.  Indianapolis 508,814  483,097  597,097 

13.  Milwaukee 504,324  438,720  443,947 

14.  Cincinnati 445,554  453,974  441,044 

15.  Oklahoma  City 382,341  315,113  399,706 

Totals 17,936,235  15,194,426  17,015,809 

The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricultural  Economics  reports  that 
23,217,038  cattle  and  calves  were  received  at  68  stock  yards  in  1922. 
The  15  markets  listed  above  received  77  per  cent  of  this  total. 

There  are  no  large  cattle  markets  in  other  countries  which  compare 
with  the  larger  markets  in  the  United  States.  South  American  markets 
may  in  time  approach  our  own  in  size.  American  packers  are  now 
operating  plants  in  Argentina,  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  Paraguay.  Pack- 
ing plants  are  one  of  the  most  essential  factors  in  the  creation  of  large 
central  markets. 

The  Chicago  market,  the  largest  cattle  market  in  the  world, 
received  3,163,009  cattle  and  771,489  calves  in  1922.  Cattle  weighing 
300  pounds  or  less  are  classed  as  calves.  The  total  value  of  cattle 
received  at  Chicago  in  1922,  excluding  calves,  was  $248,595,111. 
Their  average  value  per  head  was  $78.60.  Their  average  weight  was 
996  pounds.  Their  average  price  per  cwt.  was  $7.90.  The  number 
of  cattle  received  at  Chicago  direct  from  western  ranges  in  1922  was 
265,700.  Chicago  does  not  receive  as  many  of  these  as  do  some  of 
the  markets  located  farther  west.  Western  range  cattle  direct  from 
the  West  are  marketed  at  Chicago  from  July  to  December  inclusive, 
and  they  usually  constitute  about  10  per  cent  of  all  cattle  received 
during  the  year.  The  total  value  of  the  calves  received  was  $10,551,660; 
their  average  value  was  $13.65;  their  average  weight  was  141  pounds; 
and  their  average  price  per  cwt.  was  $9.70. 

Sources  of  receipts. — The  corn-growing  area  of  the  Mississippi  and 
Missouri  valleys  affords  the  best  facilities  for  the  production  of  meat 
animals,  and  this  area  is  tapped  at  many  points  by  lines  of  railway 
centering  in  Chicago.  The  corn-fed  cattle  of  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Mis- 
souri, Kansas,  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio,  and  the  grass-fed  cattle  of 
Montana,  Wyoming,  the  Dakotas,  and  Texas,  have  easy  access  to 


80  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Chicago.  Steers  are  sold  in  Chicago  that  were  born  in  Texas,  matured 
in  Montana,  and  finished  in  an  Iowa  feed-lot.  Sheep  often  experience 
similar  wanderings  before  reaching  market,  but  hogs  usually  come 
direct  from  the  farm  on  which  they  were  farrowed. 

Average  carloads.-'-Reports  of  stock  yards  and  railroads  show  that 
the  average  number  of  meat  animals  to  the  carload  is  for  cattle  about 
25,  hogs  in  single-deck  cars  about  75,  and  sheep  about  120  per  deck. 
These  figures  represent  mere  averages.  The  number  of  animals  per 
car  varies  greatly  depending  on  the  age  and  size  of  the  animals.  For 
example,  a  stock  car  36  feet  long  will  hold  55  calves  weighing  400 
pounds  each,  35  yearlings  weighing  700  pounds,  25  cattle  averaging 
1,000  pounds,  21  cattle  weighing  1,200  pounds,  or  19  cattle  weighing 
1,400  pounds  each. 

Shrinkage  of  beef  cattle  in  transit.-r-In  an  investigation  made  in 
1913  by  W.  F.  Ward  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  ^  cattle 
in  transit  less  than  24  hours  shrank  from  2.05  to  3.  91  per  cent.  Those 
in  transit  from  24  to  36  hours  shrank  from  3.46  to  6.37  per  cent.  Those 
in  transit  from  36  to  72  hours  shrank  3.88  to  5.40  per  cent.  Those  in 
transit  over  72  hours  shrank  from  3.96  to  7.00  per  cent.  These  figures 
are  based  on  weight  at  origin  and  "filled"  weight  at  market. 

The  fill.^Commission  men  who  sell  live  stock  on  the  large  markets 
are  always  careful  that  the  cattle  consigned  to  them  get  plenty  of  hay 
and  water  before  they  are  offered  for  sale.  This  is  called  the  "fill," 
and  it  is  important  because  it  has  a  quieting  effect  on  the  cattle,  corrects 
the  gaunt  appearance  caused  by  shipping,  and  adds  weight  to  the 
animal.  The  buyer  estimates  the  fill  in  various  ways,  particularly  by 
the  degree  of  paunchiness.  Hence  the  fill  does  not  constitute  a  fourth 
factor  of  the  dressing  percentage,  but  is  included  under  paunchiness. 
On  hot  days  when  cattle  take  a  heavy  fill  of  water,  buyers  stay  off  the 
market  as  long  as  possible. 

Monthly  weights  of  Chicago  cattle. — The  writer  tabulated  the 
average  monthly  weights  of  cattle  at  Chicago  for  ten  years,  1913  to 
1922  inclusive,  and  then  determined  the  monthly  averages  for  the  entire 
ten-year  period.  The  average  weight  for  April  at  1,002  pounds  was 
highest,  and  the  average  October  weight  at  959  pounds  was  lowest. 
The  general  average  for  the  ten  years  was  981  pounds.  Following  are 
the  ten-year  averages  for  all  months:  ^ 


^U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  25,  pp.  73,  74. 

^Compiled  from  Drovers  Journal  Year  Books  of  Figures. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


81 


Average  monthly 


of  cattle  at  Chicago  for  ten  years 


Weight 
Month  Pounds 

January 977 

February 986 

March 979 

April 1,002 

May 994 

June 1,000 


»T     .u  Weight 

Month  Pounds 

July 980 

August 987 

September 965 

October (959) 

November 968 

December 971 


Seasonal  variations  in  receipts  and  sale  of  cattle  at  Chicago. — 

Fig.  21  shows  the  average  monthly  receipts  of  cattle,  excluding  calves, 
at  Chicago  for  ten  years.  Largest  receipts  occur  in  September,  October, 
November,  December,  and  January,  especially  in  October  and  Novem- 
ber.    Large  receipts  at  this  season  are  due  to  the  heavy  run  of  grass- 

IHI  QicQQo  5lQU(]Wer      m^  oKipped  ^or  5lau(|hter      ^^  Onipped  jor  reeaina 


Fig.  21. — Average  monthly  receipts  and  shipments  of  cattle,  excluding  calves, 
at  Chicago  in  thousands  for  ten  years,  1909-1913  and  1917-1921.  The  years  1914- 
1916  were  omitted  because  of  embargoes  on  shipments  during  much  of  that  period. 
The  total  length  of  each  bar  represents  average  monthly  receipts.  The  divisions  of 
the  bar  represent  the  average  number  of  Chicago  cattle  sold  monthly  for  local  slaugh- 
ter, shipment  to  other  points  for  slaughter,  and  shipment  to  the  country  for  feeding 
(or  breeding)  purposes. 

fed  cattle  in  the  fall.  (During  the  ten  years  included  in  this  study, 
largest  receipts  occurred  in  October  five  times,  in  November  twice,  in 
December  once,  and  in  January  twice.)  About  40  per  cent  of  the 
year's  total  receipts  arrive  during  the  last  four  months  of  the  year,  and 
about  50  per  cent  in  these  months  and  January.  ^    From  February  to 


^The  same  is  true  of  average  monthly  receipts  at  67  stock  yards  in  the  United 
States.— U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  286. 


82  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

July  inclusive,  monthly  receipts  are  smaller  and  quite  uniform.  (These 
months  included  all  of  the  low  points  during  the  ten  years.)  Over  50 
per  cent  more  cattle  are  received  at  Chicago  in  October  than  in  April, 
but  monthly  receipts  of  cattle  are  less  variable  than  those  of  sheep  or 
hogs,  as  may  be  noted  by  comparing  Fig.  21  with  Fig.  81  and  Fig. 
132. 

As  shown  in  the  chart,  about  64  per  cent  of  the  cattle  received  at 
Chicago  are  slaughtered  there,  23.5  per  cent  are  shipped  to  other  points 
for  slaughter,  and  12.5  per  cent  are  returned  to  the  country  for  feeding.  ^ 
In  September,  October,  November,  and  December,  the  movement  of 
feeders  is  at  its  height.  During  these  four  months  17  per  cent  of  the 
cattle  received  at  Chicago  are  sold  for  feeding  purposes,  and  these  con- 
stitute over  50  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  feeder  cattle  shipped 
from  Chicago  during  the  year.  The  feeder  outlet  helps  to  maintain 
prices  for  all  cattle  during  the  season  of  large  receipts.  Most  feeders 
are  fattened  and  returned  to  market  before  June  1,  thus  helping  to 
maintain  supplies  during  the  season  of  light  receipts. 

Movements  of  live  stock  are  largely  controlled  by  such  factors  as 
the  limits  of  the  grazing  season,  the  maturity  of  crops  for  feeding, 
distribution  of  labor,  etc.,  and  it  is  not  advisable  that  monthly  ship- 
ments of  cattle  to  market  shall  be  equalized,  yet  it  is  at  the  same  time 
true  that  a  more  even  distribution  is,  within  limits,  desirable  to  both 
producer  and  consumer. 

Early  cattle  markets.-^A  century  ago  cattle  markets  were  small 
and  largely  local  in  character.  The  "West"  at  that  time  was  com- 
prised of  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  Indiana.  There  were  no  railroads,  no 
live-stock  cars,  no  refrigerator  cars,  no  steamships,  and  no  large  live- 
stock markets.  Every  large  town  had  its  own  stock  yards  or  cattle 
market  to  which  cattle  were  driven  from  the  surrounding  country  and 
sold  to  butchers.  In  time,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  and 
Baltimore  became  rather  large  markets,  and  in  some  instances  cattle 
were  driven  long  distances  to  supply  them. 

Early  methods  of  transportation .r — This  was  before  the  days  of 
railroads,  and  even  after  the  railroads  came,  very  few  live  animals  were 
carried  until  about  1860.  Prior  to  1850,  it  was  the  general  practice  to 
drive  live  stock  to  market  on  foot.  At  that  time,  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  pasturage  was  free  along  the  routes,  and  the  animals  were 
driven  by  easy  stages,  reaching  market  without  very  much  deprecia- 
tion. George  Renick,  of  Ohio,  was  perhaps  the  first  man  to  find  an 
outlet  for  cattle  fattened  in  what  was  then  "The  West."  In  1805, 
against  the  advice  of  his  neighbors,  he  successfully  drove  68  head  of 


lAt  67  markets  about  20  per  cent  of  all  cattle  and  calves  are  sold  for  feeding. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  286. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  83 

cattle  to  Baltimore  and  disposed  of  them  at  a  profit.  ^  This  gave  a 
great  impetus  to  the  western  cattle  business  of  that  time  and  afforded 
a  means  of  marketing  corn.  Droves  of  150  to  500  cattle,  mostly  four- 
or  five-year-old  steers,  were  fattened  on  corn  and  driven  overland  in 
spring  and  summer.  From  1840  to  1850  Ohio  and  Kentucky  supplied 
most  of  the  corn-fed  cattle  on  eastern  markets.  ^ 

One  route  from  Kentucky  to  New  York  City  covered  about  800 
miles  and  required  over  ten  weeks  to  complete  it.  Drives  to  the  eastern 
seaboard  were  made  from  as  far  west  as  Iowa,  and  even  Texas  cattle 
passed  eastward  in  this  manner.  Sheep  were  driven  across  country 
also,  notably  from  Vermont  to  Virginia.  Large  numbers  of  hogs  were 
driven  to  market,  but  they  were  a  more  active  type  than  the  modern 
fat  hog.  By  1860,  few  hogs  were  driven  any  considerable  distance. ' 
Today  we  do  not  even  drive  hogs  from  the  farm  to  the  shipping  point, 
but  haul  them  in  wagons. 

The  advent  of  transportation  by  rail  *  marked  a  decided  turning 
point  in  the  live-stock  industry  and  the  live-stock  markets.  Western 
cattle  were  then  sold  on  eastern  markets  throughout  the  year.  Pro- 
ducers of  grass-fattened  cattle  in  the  East  could  not  compete  with  them, 
and  Ohio  feeding  also  declined  in  competition  with  the  cheaper  grass 
cattle  of  Illinois.  By  1860  the  railroads  extended  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, and  central  Illinois  and  eastern  Iowa  became  a  great  cattle 
feeding  district.  Then  came  the  development  of  the  range  cattle 
industry  of  the  Great  Plains  from  1870  to  1885,  reaching  its  maximum 
development  between  1890  and  1900. 

Development  of  large  markets. — As  long  as  markets  were  simply 
the  scene  of  barter  in  live  animals  for  local  use,  no  large  markets  were 
developed.  About  1820  pork  packing  was  begun,  and  this  furnished 
the  first  impetus  to  the  creation  of  large  markets  of  more  than  mere 
local  importance.  Pork  could  be  pickled,  salted,  and  smoked,  and  the 
fat  rendered  into  lard,  and  the  products  thus  produced  could  be  shipped 
to  distant  points.  As  these  products  met  with  good  demand,  pork 
packing  was  the  natural  beginning  of  a  vast  meat-manufacturing  busi- 
ness, tending  to  centralize  the  hog  markets,  and  much  increase  them  in 
size.  So  far  as  cattle  were  concerned,  however,  the  development  was 
not  parallel.  Outside  of  an  article  known  as  "barreled  beef,"  which 
was  put  down  in  salt,  packers  had  found  no  method  of  handling 
beef  as  they  did  hogs.  Not  until  the  era  of  the  refrigerator 
car,  beginning  in   1875,   were  cattle  of  much  interest   to   packers. 


lAlvin  H.  Sanders:  Shorthorn  Cattle,  1900,  p.  192. 
2U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  233. 

3 Frank  Andrews:  Cost  and  Methods  of  Transporting  Meat  Animals,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1908,  p.  228. 

*V.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  pp.  234-238. 


84  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

and  not  until  that  time  did  the  large  cattle  markets  reach  a 
maximum  development. 

The  cattle  markets  of  the  United  States  migrated  from  east  to 
west,  following  closely  upon  the  development  of  the  country.  It  was 
at  one  time  believed  that  Albany  was  to  be  the  final  gateway  for  western 
cattle.  Next  Buffalo,  Pittsburgh,  and  Cincinnati  were  in  turn  regarded 
as  the  future  great  market  of  the  country;  but  eventually  it  became 
evident  that  Chicago,  by  virtue  of  location  and  railroad  facilities,  was 
to  become  and  remain  the  largest  cattle  market  in  America.  This 
fact  was  clearly  established  by  1870. 

With  the  development  of  the  corn  belt  and  western  range  cattle 
industry,  markets  established  at  various  points  on  the  Great  Lakes 
and  along  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers  became  the  most  im- 
portant. This  is  a  natural  result  of  the  fact  that  the  states  west  of 
the  Mississippi  produce  about  80  per  cent  of  our  beef  cattle,  50  per 
cent  of  our  hogs,  and  75  per  cent  of  our  sheep,  while  the  states  east  of 
the  Mississippi  consume  about  68  per  cent  of  our  total  meat  produc- 
tion. Most  of  the  principal  slaughtering  points  and  principal  markets 
are  near  the  areas  of  large  production  because  dressed  meat  may  be 
shipped  more  economically  than  live  animals,  due  to  lower  freight  costs 
and  elimination  of  deaths,  injuries,  bruises,  and  shrinkage  in  transit.  ^ 

Chicago's  early  cattle  trade. — The  history  of  Chicago  as  a  cattle 
market  extends  back  many  years  to  the  time  when  a  few  hundred 
animals  were  driven  in  to  supply  the  garrison  at  old  Fort  Dearborn. 
It  was  not  until  the  advent  of  railroads,  however,  that  Chicago  took 
prominence  as  a  live-stock  center.  When  railroad  communication  with 
the  Atlantic  seaboard  was  established  and  lines  were  built  from  Lake 
Michigan  toward  the  Mississippi,  a  revolution  was  brought  about. 
Half  a  dozen  stock  yards  were  located  in  various  parts  of  the  city,  and 
when  these  became  glutted,  the  cattle  were  grazed  on  the  surrounding 
prairie  until  a  price  could  be  realized.  Mess  pork  and  barreled  beef 
were  staple  articles  known  to  the  trade  under  the  appetizing  names  of 
"sow  belly"  and  "salt  horse."  Dressed  beef  was  then  unknown  to 
commerce,  artificial  refrigeration  was  not  even  speculated  upon,  the 
refrigerator  car  existed  merely  as  an  idea,  if  at  all,  and  the  canning 
of  meats  had  not  been  attempted.  Armour  was  not  a  prominent 
name  at  that  time.  Swift  had  not  yet  discovered  Chicago,  and  nearly 
every  concern  then  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  meats  has  since 
gone  out  of  business. 

Founding  of  the  Union  Stock  Yards.+^Prior  to  1865,  Chicago  had 
several  stock  yards  of  minor  importance  and  located  in  different  sec- 


1  Studies  in  Live-Stock  Marketing,  The  Geography  of  Meat  Production  and 
Consumption,  Commercial  Research  Dept.,  Swift  and  Conipany,  Chicago,  Jan.,  1922. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  85 

tions  of  the  city.  The  first  was  the  old  Bull's  Head  Stock  Yards, 
opened  in  1848.  In  1865,  John  B.  Sherman  organized  the  Union  Stock 
Yard  and  Transit  Company,  which  purchased  320  acres  at  39th  and 
Halsted  streets  and  opened  the  present  Union  Stock  Yards,  thus  laying 
the  basis  for  a  greater  live-stock  trade  at  Chicago.  In  1876  the 
market  could  accommodate  at  one  time  20,000  cattle,  100,000  hogs, 
15,000  sheep,  and  1,000  horses— in  all,  136,000  animals.  The  Kansas 
City  Stock  Yards  was  opened  in  1871,  the  National  Stock  Yards, 
located  in  Illinois,  but  known  as  the  St.  Louis  market,  was  opened  in 
1872,  and  the  Omaha  Stock  Yards  was  established  in  1884.  ^ 

The  Union  Stock  Yards  today.— The  Union  Stock  Yard  and 
Transit  Company  receives,  unloads,  counts,  yards,  feeds,  waters, 
weighs,  and  delivers  or  reships  live  stock,  but  neither  buys,  sells,  nor 
slaughters  animals.  It  is  a  great  transportation  and  marketing  cor- 
poration, which  connects  all  of  the  26  railway  systems  entering  Chicago 
with  the  Union  Stock  Yards,  and  provides  unloading  platforms,  chutes, 
pens,  buildings,  and  all  necessary  facilities  for  doing  an  immense  daily 
business  in  handling  live  animals,  but  takes  no  part  in  the  transaction 
of  the  market.  Stock  yard  companies  derive  their  revenue  from  pen 
rentals,  charges  for  feed,  and  rental  of  office  space. 

The  Chicago  yards  now  occupy  an  area  of  500  acres,  450  of  which 
are  paved.  Separate  accommodations  are  provided  for  each  kind  of 
stock;  sheep  and  hogs  are  kept  in  sheds  of  two  or  more  stories  each, 
and  cattle  occupy  open  pens  holding  from  one  to  several  carloads. 
These  yards  would  hold  at  one  time  75,000  cattle,  125,000  sheep, 
300,000  hogs,  and  6,000  horses  and  mules.  Since  1900,  a  yearly  aver- 
age of  more  than  15  million  animals  have  found  a  cash  market  at 
Chicago.  Since  1865,  over  128  million  cattle,  12  million  calves,  360 
million  hogs,  150  million  sheep,  and  3  million  horses  and  mules  have 
been  handled,  making  a  grand  total  of  over  656  million  animals,  the 
value  of  which  was  nearly  15  billion  dollars.  The  business  sometimes 
amounts  to  $5,000,000  in  a  day,  and  averages  well  over  $1,500,000  for 
every  business  day  of  the  year.  Not  infrequently  2,000  carloads  of 
stock  are  received  on  Monday  or  Wednesday,  the  largest  market  days. 
Prices  established  on  this  leading  market  form  the  basis  of  values  for 
live  stock  at  other  markets  and  throughout  the  country. 

Essential  factors  in  a  large  market.— Arthur  C.  Davenport, 
manager  of  the  Chicago  Daily  Drovers  Journal,  states  ^  that  the  more 
essential  interests  which  promote  and  make  possible  the  development 
of  large  live-stock  markets  are  transportation  companies,  stock  yards 


1  Arthur  C.  Davenport:  The  American  Live  Stock  Market— How  It  Functions, 
1922,  p.  16. 

«Ibid,  p.  19. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  87 

corporations,  commission  houses,  packing  companies,  local  butchers, 
order  buyers,  export  buyers,  speculators  or  scalpers,  traders  or  dealers 
in  feeders,  banking  houses  and  loan  companies,  and  daily  market  news- 
papers. Order  buyers  buy  fat  stock  for  packers  and  butchers  located 
at  a  distance  from  the  market.  Export  buyers  make  purchases  for 
shipment  to  foreign  countries.  Speculators  and  traders  buy  all  kinds 
of  stock  that  offers  a  chance  for  resale  at  a  profit.  They  frequently 
buy  mixed  loads,  sort  them,  and  resell  to  various  classes  of  buyers. 
Traders  are  speculators  who  deal  largely  in  feeder  cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs. 

Commission  firms  rent  blocks  of  pens  from  the  stock  yards  com- 
pany and  sell  the  live  stock  consigned  to  them.  They  also  buy  feeders 
and  fat  stock  on  orders.  The  commission  company  remits  to  the  con- 
signor the  amount  received  for  animals  sold,  less  charges  for  freight, 
yardage,  feed,  commission,  insurance,  and  any  other  marketing  ex- 
penses. As  success  in  the  commission  business  rests  upon  soundness  of 
judgment,  honesty,  and  skill,  very  few  consignors  undertake  to  do 
their  own  selling,  but  do  it  more  profitably  through  the  medium  of  the 
commission  man. 

The  live-stock  exchange  is  the  organization  of  the  commission 
firms  operating  on  the  market.  It  fixes  commission  charges,  adjusts 
disputes,  enforces  rules  to  prevent  fraud,  and  handles  claims  for  loss 
and  damage  of  live  stock.  The  live-stock  exchanges  at  various  markets 
are  in  turn  members  of  the  National  Live-Stock  Exchange.  Specula- 
tors and  traders  are  not  eligible  to  membership  in  the  live-stock  ex- 
change. They  have  a  similar  organization  of  their  own  known  as  the 
"traders'  live-stock  exchange,"  and  there  is  also  a  National  Traders' 
Live-Stock  Exchange. 

How  cattle  are  sold. — ^When  cattle  are  yarded  in  the  pens  of  the 
commission  company  and  have  been  fed  and  watered,  they  are  offered 
for  sale  by  a  representative  of  the  commission  company.  Packer 
buyers,  order  buyers,  export  buyers,  local  butchers,  or  speculators  may 
buy  them.  All  sales  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs  are  made  at  private 
treaty.  The  salesman  names  his  price,  the  buyer  offers  his  bid,  and  the 
salesman  accepts  or  rejects  it.  All  live  stock  except  milkers  and 
springers,  horses,  and  mules  are  priced  and  sold  by  the  hundredweight, 
and  the  nickel  is  the  smallest  denomination  in  which  prices  are  quoted. 
As  soon  as  a  sale  is  made  the  cattle  are  driven  to  the  scales  and  weighed 
by  the  stock  yards  company.  On  the  scales  ticket  are  recorded  the 
weight,  number  of  animals,  and  price  per  cwt.,  and  the  names  of  the 
consignor,  commission  firm,  and  buyer.  All  sales  are  for  spot  cash, 
and  most  of  the  live  stock  is  sold  on  the  day  of  arrival. 

Charges  for  yardage,  feed,  and  commission. — Yardage  at  Chicago 
costs  30  cents  per  head  for  cattle  and  20  cents  for  calves.     Hay  costs 


88  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

$30  to  $40  per  ton.  The  commission  charges  for  selling  cattle  at 
Chicago  are  as  follows:  Cattle  in  car  lots,  90  cents  per  head;  mini- 
mum per  car  $18,  maximum  $24.  Calves  in  car  lots  40  cents  per  head ; 
single-deck  cars,  minimum  $18,  maximum  $24;  double-deck  cars,  mini- 
mum $26,  maximum  $30.  Less  than  15  cattle  in  one  car,  $1.25  per 
head.     Less  than  28  calves  in  one  car,  60  cents  per  head. 

Government  supervision.— On  August  15,  1921,  Congress  passed 
the  Packers  and  Stock  Yards  Act  v^hich  gives  the  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture supervision  of  packers  and  all  others  engaged  in  business  at  public 
stock  yards.  In  his  annual  report  for  1921  ^  Secretary  Henry  C. 
Wallace  states  that  by  this  act  "the  packers  are  prohibited  from  any 
unfair,  unjustly  discriminatory,  or  deceptive  practices  or  devices,"  and 
"commission  merchants,  persons  furnishing  stock  yards  services,  and 
dealers  at  yards  are  required  to  establish,  observe,  and  enforce  just,  rea- 
sonable, and  nondiscriminatory  rates."  Fines  are  provided  as  penal- 
ties. Packers  and  others  may  appeal  to  the  courts  in  case  of  dispute. 
The  rulings  of  the  Secretary  are  not  final  unless  upheld  by  the  courts. 

Cooperation  in  live-stock  marketing. — During  recent  years  the 
cooperative  movement  in  the  production  and  marketing  of  agricultural 
products  has  made  great  strides  in  the  United  States.  In  the  live- 
stock industry  this  movement  has  taken  the  form  of  cooperative 
shipping  associations,  commission  companies,  v^^ool  pools,  bull  associa- 
tions, cow-testing  associations,  consignment  sales  of  purebred  live  stock, 
and  breeders'  associations  for  collective  advertising,  selling,  etc.  Pro- 
ducers have  also  cooperated  to  establish  and  operate  creameries,  pack- 
ing plants,  and  other  manufactures  of  live-stock  products. 

The  cooperative  live-stock  shipping  association  is  an  organization 
of  producers  tributary  to  a  local  shipping  point.  The  association  ap- 
points a  manager  who  loads  and  ships  carload  lots  of  stock  made  up 
by  members,  receives  reports  and  proceeds  of  sales,  and  apportions  the 
proceeds  to  members.  For  his  services  the  manager  receives  a  com- 
mission on  each  carload.  Each  member's  animals  are  marked  to  dis- 
tinguish them  and  when  sold  at  the  market  they  are  weighed  separately, 
and,  if  necessary,  are  also  sold  separately.  If  the  carload  is  uniform, 
separate  selling  may  not  be  required.  This  system  gives  the  small 
producer  with  a  few  animals  the  opportunity  to  sell  his  stock  on  the 
central  market.  Without  it  the  small  producer  must  sell  his  stock 
locally,  either  to  the  local  stock  buyer,  local  butcher,  or  near-by  feeder. 
Shipping  associations  often  buy  feed  cooperatively,  and  sometimes  buy 
live  stock  cooperatively. 

As  early  as  1908  a  cooperative  shipping  association  was  organized 
at  Litchfield,  Minn.,  and  during  the  14  years  ending  in  1921  this 


^U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  pp.  33,  34. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  89 

association  shipped  a  total  of  2,057  cars  of  stock  to  the  St.  Paul  market. 
The  gross  receipts  were  $3,702,266.  Detailed  figures  for  the  last  five 
years  of  this  period  show  that  the  members  received  96.12  per  cent  of 
the  market  price  of  their  stock.  However,  Litchfield  is  only  80  miles 
from  the  St.  Paul  stock  yards,  so  that  freight  and  switching  charges 
constitute  less  than  40  per  cent  of  all  marketing  expenses.  ^  Over  600 
of  these  associations  are  now  more  or  less  active  in  Minnesota.  It  is 
reported  that  approximately  one-fourth  of  Iowa's  shipments  were 
marketed  cooperatively  in  1920,  and  that  during  the  same  year  Wis- 
consin had  about  500  cooperative  shipping  associations  which  handled 
about  65  per  cent  of  the  live  stock  marketed  by  that  state.  ^  Johnson 
County..  Mo.,  has  nine  live-stock  shipping  associations,  eight  of  which 
shipped  a  total  of  501  cars  of  stock  during  1922.  The  movement  has 
also  spread  to  other  states. 

Cooperative  live-stock  commission  companies  are  a  more  recent 
development.  The  cooperative  commission  company  is  owned  and 
controlled  by  the  cooperative  shipping  associations  and  individual  pro- 
ducers tributary  to  the  market  at  which  it  is  located.  The  company 
has  a  salaried  manager  who  employs  assistants,  salesmen,  and  clerks 
and  conducts  the  business  along  the  same  lines  as  the  privately  ovmed 
commission  company.  Some  cooperative  companies  charge  the  same 
commission  rates  as  the  private  companies,  and  some  charge  lower 
rates.  In  either  case  the  profits  over  and  above  dividends  on  capital 
stock  and  requirements  of  the  sinking  fund  are  prorated  to  members 
according  to  the  number  of  cars  consigned  by  each  of  them.  This 
saving  in  commission  expenses  is  the  principal  purpose  of  the  coopera- 
tive commission  company.  Cooperative  companies  are  now  operat- 
ing at  ten  of  the  largest  markets,  and  others  are  in  process  of 
organization.  The  first  one  was  established  at  Omaha  about  five  years 
ago.  The  one  at  St,  Joseph  declared  a  patronage  dividend  or  refund 
of  over  $9  per  car  on  4,818  carloads  handled  in  1921.  The  one  at  St. 
Louis  declared  a  patronage  dividend  or  refund  of  $6  per  car  on  6,650 
carloads  sold  in  1922.  The  largest  and  perhaps  the  most  successful  is 
the  Central  Cooperative  Commission  Association  at  the  St.  Paul 
market  which  sold  15,570  cars  of  stock  in  1922  (its  second  year)  for  a 
total  of  $21,756,000.  Its  operating  expenses  amounted  to  $8.27  per 
car.  It  charged  $2  less  commission  per  car  than  the  private  companies 
at  St.  Paul  and  declared  a  patronage  refund  to  its  members  of  about 
$6  per  car  of  cattle  and  about  $4  per  single-deck  car  of  hogs  and  sheep. 
With  efficient  management  the  success  of  the  cooperative  live-stock 
commission  company  seems  assured. 


HJ.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Agricultural  Cooperation,  Jan.  29,  1923. 
2U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  279. 


90  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

From  farm  to  market.^— Briefly,  the  steps  by  which  cattle  usually 
pass  from  the  farm  and  feedlot  to  the  central  market,  and  through  the 
market  and  to  their  final  destination,  are  as  follows: 

1.  Driven  from  farm  to  shipping  point. 

2.  Loaded  on  car. 

3.  Station  agent  makes  out  way  bill  indicating  to  what  market 
shipped  and  to  whom  consigned. 

4.  Car  delivered  by  railroad  to  terminal  railroad  at  destination. 

5.  Terminal  railroad  spots  car  at  market's  unloading  chutes. 

6.  Stock  yards  company  immediately  unloads,  counts,  records, 
and  delivers  the  cattle  to  commission  company  at  its  pens,  and  feeds 
and  waters  the  stock  in  accordance  with  instructions  from  commission 
company. 

7.  Commission  company  sells  to  packer  buyer,  order  buyer, 
speculator,  trader,  export  buyer,  or  local  butcher. 

8.  Stock  yards  company  then  weighs,  counts,  records,  and  de- 
livers or  reships  the  animals  to  their  final  destination. 

9.  Commission  company  immediately  remits  proceeds  of  sale  to 
owner,  less  cost  of  freight,  yardage,  feed,  commission,  and  other 
charges. 

10.  Commission  company  pays  for  freight,  yardage,  feed,  and 
other  marketing  charges,  having  retained  from  proceeds  of  sale  an 
amount  sufficient  to  cover  these  items  and  its  commission. 

Development  of  the  packing  industry. — The  term  "packer"  origi- 
nated in  the  early  days  of  the  meat  business  in  this  country,  when  the 
packing  or  putting  down  of  cured  meats,  especially  pork  products, 
was  the  principal  business  of  all  large  wholesale  butchers.  The  first 
regular  packer  in  the  West  was  Elisha  Mills,  an  easterner  who  began 
at  Cincinnati  in  1818.^ 

As  previously  mentioned,  hogs  benefitted  from  the  packing  opera- 
tions of  early  days  to  a  greater  degree  than  cattle.  Packers  could  not 
handle  beef  on  a  large  scale  until  the  invention  of  artificial  refrigeration 
and  the  substitution  of  the  tin  can  for  the  oak  barrel.  Arthur  Libby 
introduced  canned  corn  beef  in  1874,  which  was  followed  by  many 
other  palatable  canned  preparations.  James  Macdonald,  of  Aberdeen, 
Scotland,  a  noted  agricultural  writer  who  visited  the  Chicago  stock 
yards  in  1877,  states  ^  that  about  250,000  cattle  were  slaughtered  at 
Chicago  in  1876,  and  that  more  than  three-fourths  of  these  were 
handled  by  two  firms,  the  Wilson  Packing  Company  and  Libby,  Mc- 
Neill and  Libby.     He  further  states  that  about  half  of  the  beef  was 


1  Rudolf  A.  Clemen,  Economics  Dept.,  Northwestern  University:  Development 
of  American  Meat  Packing,  National  Provisioner,  Feb.  12,  1921,  p.  18. 
»Food  From  the  Far  West,  Edinburgh,  1878,  p.  187. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


91 


canned  and  the  remainder  put  down  in  barrels  and  tierces.  "Large  as 
these  beef-packing  establishments  are,"  writes  Macdonald,  "the  pork 
packeries  throw  them  far  into  the  shade."  He  reports  ten  times  as 
many  hogs  slaughtered  at  Chicago  in  1876  as  cattle. 

The  history  of  the  meat  business  is  closely  interwoven  with  the 
history  of  the  live-stock  markets,  the  two  enterprises  being  mutually 
dependent  upon  each  other.  The  Chicago  market  benefitted  not  only 
from  its  location  and  shipping  facilities,  but  to  a  great  extent  also  be- 
cause of  the  large  packing  interests  which  centered  there.  That 
part  of  the  yards  where  the  group  of  packing  plants  is  located  is 
called  "Packingtown."  Some  fifteen  or  more  companies  operate  the 
numerous  plants  in  Packingtown  and  immediate  vicinity. 

The  numbers  of  cattle  and  calves  slaughtered  by  leading  Chicago 
packers  in  1921  and  1922  were  as  follows:  ^ 

Chicago  slaughter  of  cattle  and  calves  by  leading  packers 


Company 

r;,tiip 

Calves 

1922 

1921 

1922 

1921 

353,770 
374,450 
340,839 
280,742 
154,557 
61,841 
23,505 

286,280 
313,672 
255,302 
205,042 
122,703 
62,041 
31,040 

170,334 

108,533 

130,457 

69,870 

186,572 

140,534 

116,593 

68,782 

Hammond  Company 

Libby   McNeill  and  Libby 

Anglo-American  Company 

Totals 

1,580,704 

1,27f>,080 

479,194 

512,481 

The  refrigerator  car. — There  have  been  three  eras  in  the  evolution 
of  the  American  meat  industry:  (1)  The  era  of  pickled  meats,  such 
as  hams,  pork  products  generally,  and  salted  beef;  (2)  the  era  of  artifi- 
cial refrigeration  and  the  refrigerator  car;  (3)  the  era  of  complete 
utilization  of  by-products.  The  supremacy  during  the  first  era  was 
first  at  Cincinnati,  but  it  shifted  to  Chicago  in  the  early  sixties.  In 
the  early  days,  packing  houses  were  operated  only  during  the  winter 
months,  and  no  meats  were  packed  in  summer  until  large  chill  rooms 
were  made  possible  through  successful  artificial  refrigeration.  In  1875, 
Philip  D.  Armour  erected  in  Chicago  the  first  really  large-scale  chill  room 
in  the  world,  although  small  ice  boxes  had  previously  been  used  by  others. 
As  early  as  1868  a  refrigerator  car  had  been  invented,  but  it  was  not 
until  1869  that  the  first  through-line  railroad  was  opened  between 
Chicago  and  New  York  so  that  cars  of  western  meat  could  be  shipped 
through  to  eastern  markets  without  unloading  en  route.  In  1869  the 
first  consignment  of  dressed  beef  was  shipped  from  Chicago  to  Boston, 


1  Drovers  Journal  Year  Book  of  Figures  for  1922. 


92  Types  and  Maricet  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

but  the  attempt  was  not  successful.  In  1875,  G.  F.  Swift,  who  had 
come  to  Chicago  that  year,  and  who  founded  Swift  and  Company, 
fitted  up  a  car  and  shipped  it  east  successfully.  Thereupon,  this 
branch  of  the  packing  business  was  entered  into  rapidly,  thus  eliminat- 
ing freight  charges  on  the  40  to  44  per  cent  waste  of  the  live  animal, 
the  shrink  on  cattle  during  the  long  haul,  the  expense  of  feeding  and 
watering  en  route,  and  the  loss  of  those  which  died  in  transit. 

Pioneer  exports  of  beef. — Still  greater  savings  have  been  effected 
by  changes  in  the  export  trade.  John  J.  Bate,  of  New  York,  was  the 
first  to  undertake  shipments  of  dressed  carcasses  to  Europe.  On 
February  11,  1875,  he  made  a  small  shipment  to  Liverpool  which 
arrived  in  good  condition.  This  was  followed,  on  June  6,  by  a  larger 
shipment,  and  on  August  10,  a  still  larger  consignment  to  Liverpool 
was  made,  all  arriving  in  good  condition.  In  October,  1875,  Timothy 
C.  Eastman  began  his  first  shipments  of  fresh  beef  from  America  to 
England;  Mr.  Eastman  is  generally  regarded  as  the  pioneer  in  this 
enterprise.  He  built  up  a  very  large  business  which  continued  many 
years.  Others  entered  into  the  industry,  and  shipments  were  made 
from  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Portland,  Me.  The  business  in- 
creased rapidly,  meats  being  successfully  shipped  from  Chicago  to 
England.  A  saving  of  more  than  one-half  in  shipping  expenses  is 
effected  by  exporting  dressed  beef  rather  than  its  equivalent  in  live 
animals.  From  Argentina  to  England,  over  two-thirds  of  the  live- 
weight  expenses  are  saved  by  sending  dressed  beef.  ^ 

Branch  houses  and  car  routes. — Another  important  factor  in  the 
growth  of  the  American  packing  industry  has  been  the  establishment 
of  wholesale  or  branch  houses  with  refrigerators  in  all  leading  centers 
of  meat  consumption.  Swift  and  Company  has  about  400  branch 
houses,  most  of  which  are  in  eastern  cities  and  towns.  Through  daily 
reports  from  its  branch  houses  the  packing  company  gets  its  best 
information  concerning  the  consumer  market,  and  from  this  informa- 
tion the  buying  policy  is  determined. 

Hundreds  of  smaller  towns  are  supplied  by  special  refrigerator 
cars,  known  as  "route  cars,"  which  make  regular  trips  and  deliver 
meats  ordered  by  local  dealers.  This  method  of  distribution  has  been 
used  by  Swift  and  Company  since  1890.  In  1921  Swift  operated  500 
car  routes  radiating  from  its  17  plants  in  the  United  States,  and  sup- 
plying nearly  10,000  towns.  ^ 

The  modern  packing  company. — No  better  illustration  of  the 
growth  of  the  packing  industry  can  be  had  than  that  afforded  by  the 
rise  and  present  proportions  of  one  of  the  large  packing  companies  at 


lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1908,  p.  244. 
2Swift  and  Company  Year  Book,  1922,  pp.  36-42. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  93 

Chicago.  In  1885,  this  concern  was  capitalized  at  $300,000,  in  1886 
at  $3,000,000,  in  1896  at  $15,000,000,  later  at  $35,000,000,  in  1906  at 
$50,000,000,  and  in  1922  it  was  $150,000,000.  It  has  packing  plants 
in  several  American  cities  and  also  in  South  America  and  Australia, 
but  the  figures  here  presented  apply  only  to  its  business  in  the  United 
States.  It  has  over  400  branch  houses  in  the  principal  cities  and  towns 
of  the  United  States,  and  owns  and  operates  7,000  refrigerator  cars. 
Its  output  of  meat  of  all  kinds  in  one  year  was  almost  3  billion  pounds. 
Its  sales  in  1922  totaled  over  $650,000,000.  It  paid  $317,000,000  to 
live-stock  producers.  Its  profit  on  meat  sales  is  only  about  2  per  cent, 
but  the  capital  is  turned  over  several  times  during  the  year.  It  paid 
its  45,000  stockholders  a  6  per  cent  dividend  amounting  to  $9,000,000. 
In  1922  its  Chicago  plant  converted  into  dressed  meat  375,000  cattle, 
109,000  calves,  868,000  sheep,  and  733,000  hogs. 

According  to  the  1920  census,  1,305  packing  establishments  in  the 
United  States  paid  out  in  1919  for  raw  materials,  chiefly  live  stock, 
$3,774,901,000,  and  their  manufactured  products  had  a  total  value  of 
$4,246,290,000. 

Federal  inspection  of  animals  and  meats  is  rigid  and  includes  all 
animals  at  central  markets  and  all  carcasses  and  packing-house  prod- 
ucts intended  as  food.  This  safeguards  the  public  health  and  has 
been  an  important  factor  in  gaining  admission  for  our  meats  into 
foreign  countries.  Dr.  George  Ditewig  of  the  Meat  Inspection  Divi- 
sion, U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  describes  the  federal  inspection 
as  follows:' 

"Federal  meat  inspection  is  conducted  under  the  provisions  of  the 
act  of  Congress  of  June  30,  1906,  commonly  designated  the  Meat 
Inspection  Act,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  prevent  the  use,  in  interstate 
or  foreign  commerce,  of  meat  and  meat  food  products  which  are  unfit 
for  human  food.  In  brief,  this  law  authorizes  the  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture, at  his  discretion,  to  make,  through  inspectors,  an  ante-mortem 
examination  and  inspection  of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  to  be 
slaughtered  and  the  meat  and  meat  food  products  of  which  are  to  be 
used  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce;  it  also  directs  the  Secretary 
to  make,  through  inspectors,  a  post-mortem  examination  and  inspection 
of  the  carcasses  and  parts  thereof,  and  an  examination  and  inspection 
of  all  meat  food  products,  of  all  such  animals  prepared  for  human  con- 
sumption at  any  slaughtering,  meat  canning,  salting,  packing,  render- 
ing, or  similar  establishment  for  transportation  as  articles  of  interstate 
or  foreign  commerce.  If,  on  such  post-mortem  inspection,  the  articles 
are  found  to  be  wholesome,  within  the  meaning  of  the  law,  it  is  the 
duty  of  department  inspectors  to  mark  them  'Inspected  and  passed,' 


U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1915,  p.  273. 


94  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

and  if  not,  to  mark  them  'Inspected  and  condemned.'  Condemned 
articles  are  required  to  be  destroyed  for  food  purposes  in  the  presence 
of  an  inspector." 

In  1921,  the  federal  inspection  conducted  at  892  packing  plants 
and  other  similar  establishments  throughout  the  country  resulted  in 
the  condemnation  at  slaughter  of  2.73  per  cent  of  cattle,  .26  per  cent 
of  calves,  1.63  per  cent  of  hogs,  .10  per  cent  of  sheep,  and  .16  per  cent 
of  goats.  The  average  of  all  animals  was  1.38  per  cent.  *  Meat  con- 
demned after  slaughter,  including  all  meat  and  meat  food  products, 
prepared  and  processed,  amounted  to  .20  per  cent.  Nothing  has  done 
more  to  instil  confidence  in  packers'  meats  than  has  the  rigid  govern- 
mental inspection.  Packers'  losses  are  frequently  heavy  on  account  of 
this  inspection,  mainly  owing  to  tuberculosis.  Crippled  animals  may 
go  into  the  food  supply.  Diseased  animals,  diseased  meats,  and  dead 
animals  are  consigned  to  the  rendering  tank,  the  products  of  which 
are  grease,  glue,  and  fertilizer. 

Government  inspection  at  the  markets  is  also  conducted  along 
other  lines  to  prevent  the  spread  of  disease  among  animals.  Arthur 
C.  Davenport  states  ^  that  all  animals  shipped  from  public  rrarkets, 
unless  for  immediate  slaughter  or  steers  for  feeding,  are  subject  to 
inspection  and  treatment.  Cattle  over  six  months  old  going  to  the 
country  for  breeding  purposes  must  be  tuberculin  tested.  Indiana  and 
Wisconsin  require  that  all  feeding  cattle  except  steers  must  be  branded 
with  an  "F"  to  insure  that  they  will  not  be  retained  for  breeding. 
Cattle  or  sheep  having  scabies,  or  cattle  infested  with  the  fever  tick, 
are  dipped  before  shipment.  All  hogs  shipped  out  must  be  vaccinated 
for  cholera  and  dipped  or  sprayed  in  a  standard  disinfectant  under 
government  supervision.  Practically  all  public  yards  maintain  quaran- 
tine divisions  for  yarding  diseased  animals.  Davenport  states  that 
430,100  cattle  from  tick-infested  territory  in  the  southern  states  were 
handled  at  Kansas  City  in  1909,  but  due  to  successful  efforts  to  extermi- 
nate this  pest,  which  causes  Texas  fever  in  cattle,  only  15,356  southern 
quarantines  were  handled  at  Kansas  City  in  1921. 

Brand  inspection. — At  markets  where  western  cattle  appear  in 
numbers,  western  cattle  growers'  associations  and  the  state  of  Montana 
maintain  brand  inspectors  who  examine  all  brands  and  cut  out  and 
sell  separately  all  cattle  not  the  property  of  the  shipper.  The  proceeds 
of  such  sales  are  returned  to  the  rightful  owners.  This  prevents  the 
rustling  of  cattle  on  the  range  and  their  sale  at  large  markets,  and 
recovers  stray  cattle  overlooked  by  shippers.    W.  F.  Wilcox,  of  Mont- 


lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  pp.  735,  736. 

2The  American  Live  Stock  Market— How  It  Functions,  1922,  pp.  157-159. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  95 

rose  County,  Colo.,  states  ^  that  over  85,000  brands  are  on  record  in 
Montana  alone,  and  that  Colorado  and  New  Mexico  each  have  recorded 
over  40,000,  Wyoming  over  21,000,  Arizona  20,000,  California  15,000, 
North  Dakota  10,000,  South  Dakota  12,000,  and  Oregon  8,500.  In 
Texas  brands  are  recorded  by  the  counties.  Many  of  the  recorded 
brands  are  no  longer  in  use,  but  the  figures  indicate  that  a  brand 
inspector  must  have  a  good  memory,  even  though  he  examine  the  ship- 
ments from  only  one  state. 


Brands  and  Branding  in  the  West,  Breeder's  Gazette,  Apr.  7, 1921,  pp.  639-641. 


-^ns' 


^  CHAPTER  VI 

FASHIONS  IN  MARKET  CATTLE 

England  and  America,  and  other  countries  inhabited  by  Enghsh- 
speaking  people,  lead  in  meat  consumption,  especially  in  beef  consump- 
tion. "The  roast  beef  of  old  England"  is  well  known  as  characteristic 
of  the  Englishman's  culinary  tastes,  but  Youatt  records  that  in  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII  the  English  people  were  "strangers  to  beef  and 
mutton."  The  consumption  of  beef  was  confined  principally  to  the 
summer  months,  and  it  sold  at  a  very  low  price,  so  that  there  was  no 
encouragement  toward  the  production  of  beef  cattle  or  beef.  Instead, 
cattle  were  valued  for  milking  purposes  and  most  of  all  for  field  labor, 
and  not  until  they  had  served  a  number  of  years  as  draft  animals  were 
they  fattened  for  the  butcher.  Six-year-old  oxen  were  sold  from  the 
plow  to  be  fattened  and  then  brought  $50  to  $75.  There  is  record  of 
an  ox  that  was  worked  until  fifteen  years  old  and  then  fattened  fairly 
well.  Those  most  certainly  were  not  days  when  men  talked  of  baby 
beef.  Size,  usefulness  for  field  labor,  and  for  dairy  purposes  were  the 
qualities  chiefly  sought. 

Prior  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  there  was  little  exer- 
cise of  care  in  the  breeding  of  cattle,  and  feeding  was  an  unknown  art. 
But  conditions  gradually  became  better;  England  became  more  pros- 
perous and  wealthy,  and  there  arose  a  demand  for  more  and  better 
beef,  for  which  higher  prices  were  paid.  This  impetus  gave  rise  to  the 
formation  of  the  breeds  of  beef  cattle,  all  of  which  originated  in  England 
and  Scotland,  unless  we  consider  the  Polled  Shorthorn  and  Polled 
Hereford  real  American  breed  creations,  which,  of  course,  they  are  not, 
being  the  result  of  slight  modifications  of  English  breeds. 

Size  and  type  of  early  beef  cattle. — When  beef  production  was 
begun  in  earnest,  more  attention  was  given  to  size  and  quantity  than 
to  quality.  Judging  from  the  records  of  weights  of  early  cattle,  and 
from  drawings  made  at  that  time,  cattle  were  ponderous,  roup-l".  slow- 
maturing  beasts,  and  very  patchy  with  great  lumps  '  "'^^vvKi'f^.  The 
ideals  of  those  days  were  exemplified  by  such  fan*  o  animals  as  the 
Durham  Ox,  weighing  3,024  pounds  at  five  years  of  age,  and  The 
White  Heifer  That  Traveled,  weighing  2,300  pounds.^  These  were 
early  Shorthorns.  Among  early  Hereford  cattle,  a  bull.  The  General, 
weighed  3,640  pounds  at  six  years.     Another  bull,  Wellington,  weighed 


lAlvin  H.  Sanders:  Shorthorn  Cattle,  1900,  pp.  39,  42. 

9fi 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  97 

2,912  pounds,  had  a  girth  of  11  feet,  3  inches,  and  measured  11  feet, 
4  inches,  from  muzzle  to  tail-head.  Another  Hereford  bull,  Hamlet, 
weighed  2,800  pounds,  and  a  steer  reached  2,912  pounds.  At  the  first 
Smithfield  Fat  Stock  Show  held  in  London  in  1799,  a  Hereford  bullock 
described  as  8  feet,  11  inches,  in  length,  6  feet,  7  inches,  in  height,  and 
10  feet,  4  inches,  in  girth,  won  first  prize  and  sold  for  $500.  Another 
ox  at  the  same  show  measured  7  feet  in  height,  and  12  feet,  4  inches, 
in  girth.  ^ 

Continued  demand  for  heavy  weights. — In  England  and  America 
the  attainment  of  large  weights  continued  to  be  the  aim  of  beef  pro- 
ducers until  rather  recent  times.     Early  maturity  was  not  given  much 


Fig.  23.— Ideal  of  early  beef  producers.  The  noted  "White  Heifer  That 
Travelled,"  a  Shorthorn,  calved  about  1806,  bred  and  fed  by  Robert  Colling,  of 
Barmpton,  near  Darlington,  in  the  county  of  Durham,  England.  A  free-martin 
heifer,  a  non-breeder,  fed  to  a  weight  of  2,300  pounds,  completely  finished,  and 
publicly  exhibited  through  the  principal  agricultural  counties  of  England  to  advertise 
the  beef-making  qualities  of  the  Shorthorn  breed,  particularly  the  herds  of  Charles 
and  Robert  Colling,  first  noted  improvers  of  the  breed.  From  an  engraving  made 
when  she  w^o  seven  years  old.  The  artist  has  undoubtedly  refined  the  head,  horns, 
and  bone  to  a  considerable  degree,  yet  the  picture  typifies  in  the  size,  massiveness, 
extreme  fatness,  and  small  bone  of  this  animal  the  ideal  of  early  beef  producers. 

attention.  It  was  simply  a  matter  of  making  each  animal  as  large  as 
possible  before  consigning  it  to  the  butcher.  Cattle  were  grown  and 
fattened  cheaply  in  those  days,  and  the  advantages  of  young,  quick- 
maturing,  highly-finished  cattle  were  not  so  marked,  nor  was  a  good 
price  offered  for  any  except  matured  beeves.     Stockmen  at  Albany, 


Macdonald  and  Sinclair:  History  of  Hereford  Cattle,  London,  1907. 


98  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

N.  Y.,  offered  $1,000  to  anyone  who  would  deliver  a  bullock  weighing 
4,000  pounds.  Prior  to  1856,  two  Illinois  cattlemen  fed  one  hundred 
head  of  high-grade  Shorthorn  steers  and  marketed  them  at  an  average 
weight  of  1,965  pounds.  About  the  same  time,  another  feeder  collected 
a  lot  of  one  hundred  grade  steers  and  fed  them  to  the  enormous  average 
of  2,377  pounds.  ^  These  feats  are  said  to  have  widely  advertised  the 
Shorthorn  as  a  beef-making  breed,  the  paramount  consideration  of 
cattle  feeders  at  that  time  being  the  attainment  of  great  weight  and 
immense  bulk. 

The  turn  toward  baby  beef.^-Fat-stock  shows  are,  in  most  respects, 
criterions  of  market  demands  in  cattle.  The  champions  of  early  days 
were  big,  matured  steers.  In  1891,  the  Chicago  Fat  Stock  Show  elimi- 
nated classes  for  three-year-old  steers;  that  date  marked  the  turning 
point  toward  what  has  since  become  known  as  "baby  beef."  In  1918 
the  International  Live  Stock  Exposition  at  Chicago  abolished  the  class 
for  two-year-old  steers.  The  tendency  is  more  and  more  toward  the 
finishing  of  younger,  quicker-maturing  animals.  The  changes  that  are 
being  wrought  are  not  plainly  evident  unless  comparisons  are  made 
extending  over  a  period  of  years,  or  unless  the  operations  of  some  of 
the  more  progressive  beef  producers  have  been  followed  during  recent 
times. 

Present  demand  is  for  early  maturity. — Breeders  and  feeders  now 
put  much  stress  on  quickness  of  maturity.  This  they  have  secured  by 
selecting  short-legged,  blocky,  compact  animals,  which  fatten  and  ma- 
ture at  a  much  younger  age  than  the  more  rangy  type  popular  in  the 
early  days.  Some  sacrifice  has  been  made  of  size  and  weight  in  order 
to  produce  a  type  that  will  make  beef  quickly,  yet  the  better  breeders 
are  careful  to  maintain  a  proper  degree  of  size  along  with  the  low-set, 
blocky  type  of  body.  The  change  has  been  vastly  beneficial  to  the 
breeder,  feeder,  butcher,  and  consumer. 

Consumers'  demands  have  changed. — The  steaks  and  roasts  of  a 
half  century  ago  were  of  large  size  and  were  frequently  so  fat  as  to  be 
wasteful.  Very  fat  beef  is  rich  and  juicy  and  may  be  favored  if  the 
price  is  not  high.  In  early  times  beef  was  relatively  cheaper  than  it  is 
today,  families  were  larger,  and  the  average  citizen  did  more  muscular 
work  and  more  outdoor  work,  so  that  large,  highly  finished  cuts  of  beef 
were  popular.  Today  the  price  of  beef  is  higher,  families  are  smaller, 
and  more  people  are  engaged  in  sedentary  and  indoor  occupations,  so 
that  cuts  of  beef  of  medium  size  and  moderate  finish  best  suit  the  needs 
of  the  average  consumer.  Under  present  conditions  most  consumers 
do  not  relish  fat  meat.  Meat  dealers  designate  very  fat  carcasses  and 
cuts  of  beef  as  "wasteful."     Retail  dealers  will  not  buy  them  except  at 


1  Shorthorn  Cattle,  pp.  335,  336. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


99 


a  discount  because  of  the  heavy  trimming  necessary  in  selHng  such 
beef  to  the  consumer  trade.  Changes  in  demands  of  consumers  have 
been  a  prominent  factor  in  the  swing  away  from  old-fashioned  heavy 
bullocks  to  modern  baby  beeves. 

/6aby  beeves  are  choice  and  prime  fat  cattle,  between  12  and  18 
months  of  age,  weighing  800  to  1,000  pounds.  Yearlings  make  25  to 
50  per  cent  more  meat  for  the  grain  consumed  than  the  same  animals 
would  make  if  kept  until  two  or  three  years  of  age.  The  small,  com- 
pact carcasses  cut  up  with  less  waste,  and  furnish  thick,  light  steaks 
such  as  are  most  in  demand,  because  they  are  cheaper  and  of  a  size 


Fig.  24. — Prime  baby  beef.  Hereford  steer,  Peerless  Wilton  39th's  Defender, 
grand  champion  at  the  International  Live  Stock  Show  in  1906.  Bred  and  fed  by 
H.  J.  Fluck,  Goodenow,  111.     Shown  by  F.  A.  Nave,  Attica,  Ind. 


adapted  for  domestic  use.  Such  cattle  will  not  dress  out  quite  as  high 
as  older  cattle,  but  the  difference  in  percentage  yield  of  carcass  is  due 
to  a  greater  amount  of  tallow  in  the  older  animal,  which  materially 
lessens  the  older  animal's  superiority  in  this  regard.  The  production 
of  baby  beef  necessitates  starting  the  fattening  process  at  birth  and 
carrying  it  on  simultaneously  with  growth;  the  animal  receives  full 
feed  from  start  to  finish.  As  stated  by  the  Breeder's  Gazette:  "The 
making  of  baby  beef  is  a  continuous  performance  which  shows  365 
days  in  the  ordinary  year  and  366  days  in  the  leap  year.     It  is  readily 


100 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


observable  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  'warming  up'  or  'short  feeding' 
calves  intended  for  the  buyers  of  prime  baby  beef.  Cattle  may  be  16 
to  18  months  of  age  and  afterward  warmed  up  a  bit,  but  they  will  not 
class  as  baby  beef  and  they  will  not  bring  the  prices  of  that  article." 
Good  breeding  essential.^Baby  beef  can  only  be  produced  from 
well-bred  calves,  as  only  well-bred  ones  mature  early  enough  to  meet 
the  market  requirements  for  this  kind  of  cattle.  Such  calves  are  hard 
to  buy  and  the  producer  of  baby  beef  cannot  feel  assured  of  obtaining 
them  season  after  season  by  purchase,  but  is  practically  compelled  to 
breed  them  for  his  own  use.  As  breeding  and  feeding  are  rather  dis- 
tinct lines  of  enterprise,  and  as  few  feeders  care  to  maintain  a  breeding 


Fig.  25. — Baby  beeves  on  feed.     Grade  Hereford  calves  in  the  feed-lot  of 
E.  M.  Cassady  and  Sons,  Whiting,  Iowa. 


herd,  or  have  facilities  for  doing  so,  baby  beef  production  is  much  less 
followed  than  would  be  the  case  if  good  calves  were  readily  available. 
Furthermore,  it  has  been  shown  that  only  those  feeders  skilled  in  the 
art  of  finishing  cattle,  and  fully  equipped  to  give  the  animals  every 
chance,   can  successfully  produce  baby  beef. 

Increased  production  of  baby  beeves. — As  long  as  thin  two-  and 
three-year-old  steers  may  be  purchased  for  feeding,  there  will  be  no 
marked  increases  in  baby-beef  production.  The  time  is  now  at  hand, 
however,  when  a  large  percentage  of  beef  cattle  must  not  only  be  fed 
on  the  farms  of  theMississippi  and  Missouri  valleys,  but  bred  there 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  101 

also.  As  it  is  no  longer  profitable  for  the  farmer  to  first  grow  a  steer 
and  then  fatten  him,  the  growing  and  fattening  processes  must  be  com- 
bined, and  the  cattle  sent  to  market  under  24  months  of  age;  in  other 
words,  beef  production  must  be  placed  very  largely  on  a  baby-beef  basis. 

Clay,  Robinson  and  Company,  of  Chicago,  in  a  communication 
to  the  writer,  had  the  following  to  say  concerning  baby-beef  produc- 
tion: "There  has  been  marked  increase  in  the  production  of  this  class 
of  cattle  for  the  reason  that  the  public  demands  them.  For  years  the 
tendency  has  been  toward  the  maturing  of  cattle  at  a  younger  and 
younger  age.  It  was  not  so  many  years  ago  when  an  animal  was  not 
considered  ready  for  the  market  under  four  years  old,  but  evolution  in 
beef  production  started,  and  the  most  desirable  beeves  in  the  market 
today  are  prime,  fat  yearlings." 

Baby  beeves  make  economical  gains. — As  showing  the  possibilities 
for  profit  in  the  production  of  baby  beeves,  the  Kansas  Experiment 
Station  ^  fed  130  grade  Shorthorn,  Hereford,  and  Angus  calves  that  had 
just  been  weaned,  and  during  seven  months'  feeding  secured  an  average 
monthly  gain  of  56  pounds  per  head.  The  average  weight  at  the 
beginning  was  408  pounds;  when  sent  to  market  seven  months  later, 
the  average  weight  was  800  pounds,  and  the  age  was  a  little  over  one 
year.  All  except  32  head  were  heifers.  The  remarkable  feature  of 
this  demonstration  was  the  small  amount  of  feed  consumed.  It  re- 
quired only  503  pounds  of  grain  and  509  pounds  of  hay  to  make  100 
pounds  gain  in  weight.  The  best  record  was  made  by  10  skim-milk 
calves  that  were  fed  alfalfa  hay  and  corn.  They  consumed  only  439 
pounds  of  grain  and  436  pounds  of  hay  for  every  100  pounds  of  gain. 
When  older  cattle  are  fed,  it  usually  requires  about  twice  these  amounts 
of  grain  and  roughage  to  secure  100  pounds  of  gain. 

E.  M.  Cassady  and  Sons,  of  Whiting,  Iowa,  made  a  test  of  the 
cost  and  rate  of  gains  made  by  Hereford  steers  started  on  feed  as  calves 
and  yearlings.  These  steers  were  of  the  same  breeding,  having  been 
bred  on  the  Cassady  farm  from  the  same  sire  and  dams.  The  calves 
weighed  475  pounds  when  put  on  feed,  and  were  charged  at  $6.00  per 
cwt.;  the  yearlings  weighed  775  pounds,  and  were  charged  at  $5.70  per 
cwt.  Although  the  calves  were  fed  for  a  longer  period  than  the  year- 
lings, the  average  cost  of  100  pounds  of  gain  was  $10.80  for  the  calves, 
as  compared  with  $15.65  for  the  yearlings.  The  calves  made  a  profit 
of  $20  per  head,  and  the  yearlings  made  a  profit  of  $14. 

In  three  years  work,  including  three  trials,  the  Indiana  Experi- 
ment Station  found  that  when  feed  prices  were  such  that  it  cost  $7.74 
to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  on  baby  beeves,  it  cost  $9.09  to  make 
the  same  gain  on  yearlings,  and  $9.37  on  two-year-olds. 


Kan.  Bui.  113. 


102 


Types  and  Maricet  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


Steer  and  Heifer  Beef 

The  heading  of  this  chapter,  "Fashions  in  Market  Cattle,"  impHes 
that  the  demands  of  the  cattle  market  are  subject  to  change.  The 
truth  of  this  has  been  shown  by  the  preceding  discussion  of  the  trend 
away  from  the  old-time,  heavy,  matured  beeves,  and  toward  the  finish- 
ing of  younger  cattle.  The  word,  "fashions,"  also  implies  that  the 
market  indulges  in  some  practices  that  are  not  entirely  utilitarian  and 
practical,  but  are  more  or  less  fanciful  and  whimsical.  That  this  is 
true  will  be  shown  by  a  consideration  of  the  cattle  market's  discrimina- 
tion against  fat  heifers  as  compared  with  fat  steers.     When  the  heifer 


Fig.  26. — A  grand  champion  fat  heifer.  Lula  Mayflower,  a  Shorthorn-Angus 
crossbred  senior  yearling  heifer,  grand  champion  over  all  fat  steers  and  heifers  at  the 
1921  International  Show.  Bred,  fed,  and  exhibited  by  the  University  of  California. 
Weight  1,244  pounds.  Sold  for  $1.10  per  pound.  This  is  the  only  heifer  that  has 
won  this  honor  at  the  21  International  Shows  held  to  date. 

is  well  fed,  she  is  consigned  to  a  lower  class  than  a  steer  of  the  same 
breeding,  same  fatness,  same  quality,  same  age  and  form.  In  some 
countries,  heifers  outsell  steers  for  beef  purposes.  In  this  country  there 
is  discrimination  in  price  against  heifers  on  the  market,  and  for  that 
reason  heifers  are  rarely  as  well  fed  as  steers. 

Steers  and  heifers  compared  in  tests. — In  September,  1892, 
Wilson  and  Curtiss  of  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  ^  purchased  five 

ilowa  Bui.  24. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


103 


steers  and  ten  heifers  and  began  an  experiment  to  determine  whether 
a  discrimination  against  fat  heifers  is  justifiable.  All  of  these  cattle 
were  yearling  grade  Shorthorns,  all  sired  by  the  same  bull.  Five  of 
the  heifers  were  spayed  soon  after  purchase,  and  all  fifteen  head  were 
roughed  until  January  4,  1893,  when  they  were  grain-fed  for  eleven 
months,  and  then  shipped  to  Chicago.  There  they  were  sold  on  the 
open  market  to  Swift  and  Company,  who  made  slaughter  and  block 
tests  of  the  animals.  The  results  of  the  experiment  are  condensed  into 
the  following  table: 

Steers  and  heifers  compared  in  gains,  yields,  and  profits 


Weights,  costs,  gains,  prices,  yields,  profits 


Original  weight,  September  12,  lbs 

Cost,  per  lb.,  cents 

Total  cost 

Cost  of  pasture  and  fodder  prior  to  January  4 .  .  .  . 

Weight,  January  4,  lbs 

Average  gaift  on  feed  per  animal  per  day,  lbs .  .  . 

Total  gain 

Average  cost  feed  per  lb.  gain,  cents 

Total  cost  feed 

Shrink  in  shipping,  lbs 

Selling  weight,  lbs 

Selling  price  per  lb.,  cents 

Selling  price,  total 

Freight,  yardage,  and  commission 

Profit 

Beef  (warm  weight),  lbs 

Dressing  percentage 

Total  tallow,  lbs 

10  loins,  per  cent  of  carcass 

10  loins,  price  per  lb.,  cents 

10  ribs,  per  cent  of  carcass 

10  ribs,  price  per  lb.,  cents 

10  rounds,  per  cent  of  carcass 

10  rounds,  price  per  lb.,  cents 

Margin  between  live  cost  and  sales  of  meat  and 
by-products,  not  including  expense  of  killing 
and  handling 


5 

Steers 


4,005. 

3.5 
$140.18 
20.00 


4,093. 

2.44 
4,032. 

5.02 
$202.47 
215. 
7,910. 

5.75 

$454.82 

24.71 

67.46 


5 
Open 
heifers 


3,455. 
2. 
$69.10 
20.00 


3,592. 
1.99 

3,288. 

6.04 
$198.70 
290. 
6,590. 

4.75 

$313.02 

24.71 

.51 


5 
Spayed 
heifers 


3,998. 
2. 
$79.96 
20.00 


3,994. 

2.07 
3,416. 

5.86 
$200.32 
280. 
7,130. 

4.75 

$338.67 

24.71 

13.68 


4,997. 
63.2 
969.5 


4,110. 
62.4 
648.75 


4,475. 
62.8 
701.5 


16.7 

15. 

10.1 

15. 

24.1 


17.6 
13.5 
10.8 
13.5 
21.5 
5.75 


17.7 
13.5 
10.9 
13.5 
21.7 
5.65 


$20.45 


$58.12 


$64.84 


The  returns  made  by  the  heifers  to  Swift  and  Company  would  have 
justified  a  purchase  price  of  $5.37  per  cwt.  for  the  spayed  heifers  and 
$5.32  for  the  open  heifers,  instead  of  $4.75  for  each,  and  still  have 
left  the  same  margin  of  profit  as  in  the  steers.  It  is  clear,  then,  that 
the  difference  in  the  live-weight  value  of  the  steers  and  heifers  was  only 
about  40  cents  per  cwt.,  instead  of  $1.00  a  cwt.  made  by  the  buyers. 
Expert  opinions  secured  from  Chicago  packers  as  to  why  the  heifer 
carcasses  sold  at  less  price  per  pound  than  the  steer  carcasses  were  to 


104  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

the  effect  that  heifers  make  more  fat  where  the  steers  make  lean  meat. 
There  is  said  to  be  more  lean  meat  in  a  steer  loin  and  a  larger  tender- 
loin.    Otherwise,  the  carcasses  were  said  to  be  of  equal  value. 

In  1894,  the  Iowa  Station '  conducted  a  second  experiment  with 
steers  and  spayed  and  open  heifers.  The  same  plan  was  followed  as 
in  the  first  experiment  and  the  results  were  practically  the  same,  thus 
verifying  the  results  of  the  first  test. 

Why  England  prefers  heifer  beef.-i^It  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
Englishmen  make  no  discriminations  against  heifer  beef,  indeed  they 
pay  more  for  it  than  for  steer  beef.  Wilson  and  Curtiss  corresponded 
with  several  Englishmen  concerning  this  matter,  and  the  substance  of 
the  replies  was  that  heifers  yield  meat  of  finer  grain  and  better  quality, 
are  as  good  cutters,  and  yield  little  rough  meat.  Rib  and  loin  cuts 
from  spayed  heifer  carcasses  were  valued  two  cents  per  pound  higher 
than  the  same  cuts  from  steer  carcasses  equally  well  fattened.  Plate 
cuts  from  heifers  were  valued  one  cent  higher.  Heifer  beef  was  said 
to  be  better  marbled,  more  pleasing  in  appearance,  more  juicy,  and 
more  palatable. 

Evidently  English  and  American  standards  for  meats  vary  some- 
what, and  public  preference  has  been  cultivated  along  different  lines 
in  the  two  countries.  So  far  as  our  American  markets  are  concerned, 
it  seems  that  the  difference  in  prices  paid  for  fat  steers  and  heifers 
may  not  be  justified  by  any  real  difference  in  the  cuts  of  meat,  yet  the 
condition  must  be  accepted  nevertheless,  and  producers  must  shape 
their  operations  accordingly.  There  is,  however,  one  logical  objection 
to  heifers;  it  is  that  they  are  frequently  pregnant,  which  lowers  the 
dressing  percentage  and  may  affect  the  value  of  the  carcass.  At  the 
present  time  the  discrimination  against  heifers  amounts  to  50  or  75 
cents  per  cwt.  for  open  heifers,  and  about  25  cents  per  cwt.  in  the  case 
of  spayed  heifers.  There  is  not  as  much  discrimination  in  price  against 
fat  young  heifers  as  against  fat  heifers  of  older  age. 

The  question  of  spaying.-r-As  the  experiment  discussed  above  dealt 
with  spayed  and  open  heifers,  a  word  may  be  said  here  about  the  com- 
parative merits  of  the  two  from  the  standpoint  of  the  feeder.  As  a 
rule,  open  heifers  make  greater  gains  because  of  the  setback  caused  by 
the  operation  of  spaying.  Once  recovered  from  the  operation,  the 
spayed  heifers  gain  faster,  but  do  not  reach  as  large  weights  as  open 
heifers.  The  recurrence  of  heat  in  open  heifers  and  their  restlessness 
at  that  time  retards  the  gains  made,  as  compared  with  spayed  heifers 
recovered  from  the  operation.  Spayed  heifers  are  said  to  yield  beef 
of  slightly  higher  quality.  Spaying  entails  a  certain  expense  and  there 
is  danger  of  mortality.     The  general  practice  is  not  to  spay  when  it  is 


Iowa  Bui.  33. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  105 

possible  to  separate  the  heifers  and  feed  them  in  a  lot  by  themselves. 
When  it  is  desired  to  feed  heifers  along  with  steers,  it  is  desirable  that 
they  be  spayed,  otherwise  the  recurrence  of  heat  causes  considerable 
commotion  among  the  cattle,  decreasing  the  gains  made  and  increasing 
the  cost. 


CHAPTER  VII 
SELECTION  OF  FEEDER  STEERS 

Beef  producers  may  be  divided  into  two  groups — (1)  men  who 
grow  beef,  and  (2)  cattle  feeders.  In  the  first  group  are  those  who 
maintain  breeding  herds  for  the  production  of  steers  for  the  market. 
This  group  includes  the  western  cattle  man  on  the  range  and  also  the 
farmer  who  keeps  a  small  herd  of  beef  cows.  The  beef  grower  has  a 
year-round  job.  Furthermore,  he  usually  follows  the  business  steadily 
for  a  period  of  years.  The  very  nature  of  the  business  demands  that 
it  be  established  on  a  permanent  basis.  It  cannot  be  followed  one 
year,  given  up  the  next  year,  and  begun  again  the  next,  with  any  fair 
expectation  of  profits.  The  second  group  includes  those  who  follow 
the  practice  of  buying  thin  cattle  to  be  fattened.  This  is  simply  a 
finishing  process,  and  is  more  speculative  in  character  than  that  of 
growing  beef.  It  may  be  followed  intermittently,  although  most  suc- 
cessful feeders  are  in  the  business  regularly  each  year.  Furthermore, 
in  the  corn-belt  states,  where  grain  feeding  is  practiced,  it  is  usually 
limited  to  a  few  months  of  the  year  and  usually  to  those  months  when 
other  farm  work  is  slack. 

When  and  where  feeders  are  bought.^^In  an  investigation  of 
methods  of  marketing  live  stock  and  meats,  made  by  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  ^  in  1915,  reports  were  received  from  2,072  special 
live-stock  and  price  reporters  of  the  Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates  which 
indicated  that  74  per  cent  of  stockers  and  feeders  are  bought  in  the 
fall,  19  per  cent  in  the  spring,  3  per  cent  in  the  summer,  and  4  per  cent 
in  the  winter.  It  was  also  indicated  that  55  per  cent  of  stocker  and 
feeder  cattle  purchased  are  bought  in  the  district  In  which  they  are  fed 
or  grazed,  27  per  cent  at  the  centralized  markets,  and  18  per  cent  in 
the  country,  other  than  locally. 

Western  range  chief  source  of  supply.— As  shown  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  the  corn-belt  beef-grower  finds  baby-beef  production  profit- 
able. On  his  high-priced  land  he  cannot  afford  to  raise  steers  to  two 
years  old  or  older  and  then  fatten  them.  The  corn-belt  cattle  feeder, 
however,  is  not  bound  by  the  same  rules.  He  usually  buys  western 
steers  raised  on  cheaper  lands,  and  as  long  as  thin  two-  and  three-year- 
old  steers  may  be  bought  at  prices  low  enough  to  make  them  profitable, 
the  feeder  will  continue  to  make  use  of  them  as  well  as  of  calves  and 
yearlings. 


lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Rpt.  113,  p.  17. 

106 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


107 


Movement  of  stockers  and  feeders. — The  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  has  reported  the  movement  of  stocker  and  feeder  cattle 
and  calves  for  the  five  months,  August  1  to  December  31,  from  43 
markets  into  the  corn-belt  states,  and  from  67  markets  into  all  states. 
These  were  compiled  from  the  records  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry- 
shipping  permits,  and  are  as  follows: 

Movement  of  stockers  and  feeders  from  central  markets 


Into  corn-belt  states  from  43  markets 

Into  all  states  from  67  markets 

Year 

Number 

Year 

Number 

1919 
1920 

1921 
1922 

1,813,000 

1,358,000 
1,415,000 
2,226,000 

1919 
1920 
1921 
1922 

3,040,000 
2,215,000 
2,113,000 
2,976,000 

Principal  feeder  markets. — The  following  table  compiled  from  re- 
ports of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricultural  Economics  gives  the  loca- 
tion and  rank  of  the  principal  stocker  and  feeder  markets  and  the 
numbers  shipped  during  three  years: 


1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 


Shipments  of  stocker  and  feeder  cattle  and  calves  from  leading  inarkets 

Markets  1922 

Kansas  City 1,151,256 

Omaha 621,124 

Chicago 408,868 

Denver 413,138 

St.  Paul 438,933 

Sioux  City 334,719 

St.  Louis 274,710 

Fort  Worth 225,130 

Wichita 202,447 

St.  Joseph 176,041 


1921 

1920 

787,904 

778,214 

442,884 

450,647 

332,477 

417,483 

273,708 

407,026 

270,284 

315,977 

239,863 

238,271 

185,057 

167,797 

172,153 

278,048 

131,703 

103,751 

102,690 

102.964 

Totals 4,246,366 


2,938,723 


3,260,178 


Most  of  these  markets  lie  on  the  margin  between  the  western  range 
and  the  corn  belt.  They  handled  86  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of 
stockers  and  feeders  shipped  from  68  markets  in  1922.  The  four 
Missouri  river  markets,  Kansas  City,  St.  Joseph,  Omaha,  and  Sioux 
City,  handled  over  45  per  cent  of  the  stock  and  feeding  cattle  shipped 
from  68  markets  in  1922.  In  1921,  12  markets  handled  84.6  per  cent 
of  the  total  from  67  markets,  and  from  these  12  markets  over  two- 
thirds  of  the  shipments  went  to  5  corn-belt  states,  Iowa,  Nebraska, 
Illinois,  Kansas,  and  Missouri.  ^  Lancaster,  Pa.,  is  the  leading  eastern 
feeder  cattle  market. 

Sorting  feeder  cattle. — Dealers  or  traders  at  large  market  centers 
buy  carloads  of  mixed  cattle  suitable  for  stockers  and  feeders  and 
drive  them  to  their  pens  in  the  feeder  division  of  the  yards  and  sort 


lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  pp.  284,  285,  287. 


108  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

them  according  to  breed,  color,  size,  and  type.  They  are  then  sold  to 
cattle  feeders  or  to  commission  companies  who  are  buying  on  orders. 

Seasonal  variations  in  demands  and  prices. — As  shown  in  Fig.  21, 
page  81,  the  feeder  movement  at  Chicago  is  at  its  height  from  Sep- 
tember 1  to  December  31,  when  the  heavy  run  of  western  cattle  comes 
to  market.  October  is  the  month  of  largest  feeder  shipments.  During 
20  years  at  Chicago,  October  was  the  high  month  15  times,  September 
3  times,  and  November  2  times.  In  April,  May,  June,  and  July  the 
feeder  movement  is  relatively  small. 

Monthly  and  yearly  average  prices  for  stocker  and  feeder  cattle 
and  calves  at  Chicago  for  ten  years  are  given  in  the  accompanying 
table,  1  the  highest  monthly  average  of  each  year  being  given  in  bold- 
face type  and  the  lowest  monthly  average  in  parenthesis. 


Monthly 

and  yearly  average  prices  for  stockers  and  feeders  at  Ch 

icagof 

or  ten  years 

Ten-year 

Month 

1922 

1921 

1920 

1919 

1918 

1917 

11913 

1912 

1911 

1910 

average 

($5.90) 

$7.20 

$9.95 

$10.85 

($8.80)   ($7.50)   ($6.15)  ($4.90) 

$5.15 

$4.65 

$7.10 

6.65 

6.80 

9.20 

11.50 

9.00 

7.75 

7.10 

5.20 

5.10 

4.85 

7.30 

March 

6.85 

8.10 

10.00 

12.00 

10.25 

8.60 

7.45 

5.60 

5.25 

5.50 

7.95 

April 

May 

7.35 

7.40 

(-) 

12.65 

10.50 

8.75 

7.50 

6.15 

5.10 

5.60 

8.10' 

.     7.35 

7.35 

10.00 

12.40 

10.75 

8.90 

7.40 

6.25 

4.95 

5.50 

8.10 

June 

6.90 

6.10 

9.40 

11.15 

10.90 

8.50 

7.15 

5.85 

4.50 

4.85 

7.55 

July 

6.20 

6.10 

8.80 

10.15 

10.25 

7.90 

7.25 

5.40 

(4.35) 

(4.45) 

7.10 

.     6.65 

5.90 

8.30 

10.75 

10.85 

8.35 

7.30 

5.70 

4.45 

4.50 

7.30 

September.  .  . 

.     6.75 

5.50 

8.85 

9.90 

10.90 

8.50 

7.35 

5.65 

4.55 

4.50 

7.25 

October 

6.70 

5.65 

8.85 

10.15 

10.25 

8.40 

6.95 

5.60 

4.40 

4.70 

7.15 

6.30 

(5.45) 

8.10 

9.75 

10.00 

8.75 

6.75 

5.85 

4.50 

4.60 

7.00 

December .... 

6.30 

5.75 

(7.10) 

(9.15) 

10.25 

8.50 

6.65 

5.50 

4.60 

4.70 

(6.85) 

Yearly  average 

.     6.65 

6.45 

8.95 

10.85 

10.25 

8.40 

7.05 

5.70 

4.75 

4.85 

7.40 

'Records  for  1914,  1915,  and  1916  omitted  because  quarantine  of  yards  prevented  sale  of  feeder 
cattle  from  November  1,  1914,  to  February  15,  1916. 
2  Comparatively  few  sold,  due  to  rail  strike. 
'  In  striking  this  average  an  estimated  price  of  $10.00  was  allowed  for  April,  1920. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  time  of  highest  and  lowest  prices  varies 
greatly  in  different  years,  but  that  in  all  years,  except  one,  highest 
prices  were  paid  in  the  spring  months,  March,  April,  and  May.  Lowest 
prices  were  most  often  paid  in  January,  but  in  every  year  the  prices 
in  January  were  higher  than  in  December  of  the  preceding  year.  This 
fact  is  reflected  in  the  column  of  figures  at  the  right,  giving  the  ten-year 
averages  of  monthly  prices.  This  column  shows  that  the  prices  of 
feeder  cattle  are  usually  lowest  in  December  and  highest  in  April  and 
May.  Following  the  December  low  spot  there  is  a  steady  increase  in 
price  until  April.  Following  the  high  prices  of  the  spring  months 
there  is  a  fairly  regular  decline  in  price  throughout  the  remainder  of 
the  year.  April  and  May  prices  averaged  $1.25  higher  than  December 
prices  during  the  ten  years. 

These  facts  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  determining  a 
general  buying  policy.     It  may  be  best  to  buy  cattle  for  summer 


^  Compiled  from  Drovers  Journal  Year  Books  of  Figures. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


109 


grazing  in  the  fall,  carrying  them  through  the  winter  on  cheap  feeds. 
Cattle  feeders  in  Missouri  who  practice  grain  feeding  on  pasture  usually 
buy  their  cattle  in  the  fall,  and  winter  them  preparatory  to  finishing 
them  during  the  following  summer. 

Sources  of  profit  in  cattle  feeding.-^Profits  in  cattle  feeding  come 
from  skill  in  feeding  and  management,  and  also  from  intelligent  buying 
and  selling.  There  is  practiced  what  is  known  as  "speculative  cattle 
feeding"  in  which  feeders  emphasize  the  buying  and  selling  more  than 
they  do  the  actual  feeding  of  the  animals,  the  object  bein^g  to  buy  on 
a  low  market  and  sell  when  the  market  is  high.  Omitting  this  specula- 
tive feature  from  consideration,  it  may  be  said  that  the  sources  of  profit 
in  feeding  a  steer  are  (1)  the  increase  in  weight  of  the  animal,  and  (2) 


Fig.  27. — Fancy  selected  feeders.  These  are  very  good  in  form,  quality, 
breeding,  uniformity,  and  other  essential  points,  except  that  dehorning  would  have 
made  them  more  desirable  for  feeding. 

the  increase  in  the  value  of  the  animal's  initial  weight. '  For  example, 
if  we  buy  a  thin  steer  at  8  cents  per  pound,  and  fatten  him  during  four 
or  six  months  feeding,  we  increase  not  only  his  weight,  but  also  his 
value  per  pound.  If  the  initial  weight  was  1,000  pounds,  and  the  final 
weight  was  1,325  pounds,  he  should  sell  at  10  cents  per  pound  without 
any  rise  of  the  cattle  market  during  the  feeding  period.  Then  the  net 
income  to  the  feeder  would  be  as  follows: 


iFor  the  purposes  of  this  discussion,  the  value  of  the  pork  produced  by  hogs 
following  cattle  in  the  feed-lot  and  the  value  of  the  manure  are  omitted  from  con- 
sideration. 


110  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

325  pounds  at  10c $32.50 

1,000  pounds  at    2c 20.00 

Net  income $52.50 

The  margin  in  cattle  feeding. — The  difference  between  the  cost 
price  and  selling  price  per  pound  is  spoken  of  as  the  "margin."  The 
steer  feeder  counts  on  a  margin  of  at  least  2  cents  per  pound,  and  when 
cattle  and  feed-stuffs  are  very  high  in  price  a  greater  margin  is  nec- 
essary. As  shown  by  the  above  calculation,  heavy  cattle  may  be 
handled  on  narrower  margins  than  light  ones,  for  if  the  initial  weight 
of  the  steer  had  been  600  pounds  instead  of  1,000  pounds,  other  factors 
remaining  the  same,  then  the  net  income  would  have  been  less  by  $8. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  younger  steer  would  probably  make 
his  325  pounds  of  gain  somewhat  cheaper  than  the  older  steer,  thus 
compensating,  in  part  at  least,  the  advantage  of  the  older  animal. 

Selection  of  Feeder  Steers  ^ 

Success  in  fattening  cattle  requires  a  thorough  knowledge  of  two 
classes  of  cattle — fat  steers  of  the  better  grades,  and  stockers  and 
feeders, — the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  feeding  process.  The 
cattle  feeder  must  be  an  expert  judge  of  a  thin  animal,  as  well  as  a 
good  judge  of  the  finished  product.  "Well  bought  is  half  sold." 
Failure  to  select  the  right  kind  of  steers  for  feeding  is  alone  sufficient 
to  cause  failure  in  the  business.  The  cattle  feeder  must  have  a  good 
knowledge  of  the  values  of  the  various  grades  of  feeders,  and  must  use 
judgment  as  to  whether  or  not  to  buy,  and  if  he  buys  it  is  again  a  matter 
of  judgment  as  to  which  grade  of  feeders  may  be  purchased,  fed,  and 
sold  with  the  greatest  profit.  The  actual  buying,  however,  is  usually 
put  in  the  hands  of  a  commission  firm;  such  firms  also  freely  and 
intelligently  advise  the  purchaser  concerning  the  matters  here  dis- 
cussed. 

The  points  which  determine  the  value  of  feeder  steers  are  age  and 
weight,  form,  quality,  constitution  and  thrift,  natural  fleshing,  condi- 
tion, breeding,  disposition,  style,  and  uniformity.  Each  of  these  is 
briefly  discussed. 

1.  Age  and  weight. — Calves  and  yearlings  require  a  longer  feeding 
period,  as  a  rule,  than  two-  or  three-year-old  steers.  This  is  due  tc> 
the  fact  that  young  animals  grow  while  they  fatten,  and  hence  "utten 
more  slowly  than  older  animals.  Most  cattle  feeders  prefer  two-  and 
three-year-old  steers  for  feeding  purposes,  and  this  is  especially  true 
where  a  "short  feed"  of  from  60  to  90  days  is  given.  For  the  "long 
feed"  of  120  to  180  days  or  more,  calves  and  yearlings  may  be  satisfac- 
tory if  carefully  selected  and  properly  handled.  Some  feeders  prefer 
the  older  steers  even  for  the  longer  feed.     The  common  practice  is  to 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  111 

buy  feeders  that  weigh  from  800  to  1,000  pounds,  or  even  heavier. 
Such  steers  are  18  months  old,  or  over.  A  thrifty  steer,  well  developed 
for  his  age,  is  usually  more  profitable  than  a  stunted  animal. 

A  considerable  amount  of  experimental  work  has  been  done  to 
determine  the  relative  advantages  in  feeding  calves,  yearlings,  and 
two-year-olds  at  the  Kansas,  South  Dakota,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Illinois, 
and  Indiana  experiment  stations.  These  experiments  have  been  based 
entirely  upon  the  finishing  period  or,  in  other  words,  have  been  planned 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  cattle  feeder  rather  than  the  grower,  and 
the  results  indicate  that  under  present  conditions  it  is  more  profitable 
to  feed  two-year-old  cattle  than  calves.  This  conclusion  is  based  upon 
the  difficulty  of  securing  calves  of  the  type,  breeding,  and  quality 
necessary  for  fattening  at  an  early  age,  the  greater  margin  between 
buying  and  selling  prices,  the  shorter  feeding  period,  more  rapid  gains, 
greater  production  of  pork  from  hogs  following  the  cattle,  smaller  pro- 
portion of  grain  to  roughage,  and  broader  demand  for  finished  heavy 
steers. 

In  three  different  trials  at  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station^  the 
calves  required  90  days  and  the  yearlings  20  days  longer  feeding  period 
than  the  two-year-olds  to  make  them  prime.  The  average  daily  gain 
of  the  calves  was  .61  pound  per  head  less  than  that  of  the  two-year-olds 
and  .34  pound  less  than  that  of  the  yearlings.  The  following  conclu- 
sions were  drawn  from  the  Indiana  experiments: 

1.  The  initial  cost  per  cwt.  of  calves  is  greater  than  that  of  older 
cattle. 

2.  The  length  of  time  necessary  for  finishing  steers  decreases 
with  increased  age  of  the  cattle. 

3.  The  rate  of  gain  and  the  cost  of  gain  increases  with  the  in- 
creased age  of  the  cattle. 

4.  The  proportion  of  roughage  to  concentrates  consumed  in- 
creases with  the  increased  age  of  the  cattle. 

5.  The  amount  of  gain  necessary  in  finishing  cattle  of  equal  condi- 
tion decreases  as  their  age  increases. 

6.  The  difference  in  total  quantity  of  feed  necessary  for  finishing 
cattle  of  different  ages  and  fed  to  the  same  marketable  finish  is  negligi- 
ble. 

7.  The  calves  made  an  average  profit  of  $4.25  per  head,  the 
yearlings  $6.43,  and  the  two-year-olds  $7.95. 

8.  The  increase  in  live  weight  necessary  to  make  calves  prime 
was  103  per  cent;  yearlings,  54  per  cent;  and  two-year-olds  43.6  per 
cent  of  their  initial  weights  at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  period. 


Ind.  Bui.  146. 


112  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

9.  The  difference  in  cost  of  one  hundred  pounds  of  gain  between 
calves  and  yearhngs  was  $1.35  in  favor  of  the  calves;  between  yearlings 
and  two-year-olds,  28  cents  in  favor  of  the  yearlings. 

10.  The  experienced  farmer  who  feeds  cattle  should  handle  older 
cattle  in  preference  to  calves,  while  the  farmer  who  produces  and 
finishes  his  own  cattle  may  find  calves  profitable. 

The  Missouri  Experiment  Station  ^  drew  the  following  conclusions 
from  feeding  300  cattle  of  various  ages  on  heavy  grain  rations  in  con- 
nection with  bluegrass  pasture: 

1.  Two-year-old  cattle  make  larger  average  daily  gains  than  year- 
lings. 

2.  Two-year-old  cattle  consumed  from  13  to  22  per  cent  more 
grain  per  day  per  head  than  did  yearlings. 

3.  Two-year-old  cattle  consumed  more  grain  per  day  per  thous- 
and pounds  live  weight  than  yearlings. 

4.  Yearlings  require  less  grain  for  each  pound  of  gain  than  do 
two-  or  three-year-old  cattle.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  younger 
the  animal,  the  less  grain  is  required  to  make  a  pound  of  gain.  The 
condition  of  the  animal  at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  period  is  an 
important  factor,  and  may  to  a  large  extent  counteract  the  influence 
of  age  in  determining  cheaper  gains. 

5.  In  these  investigations,  the  fattening  of  two-  and  three-year- 
old  cattle  has  been  generally  more  profitable  than  fattening  yearlings. 
The  chief  reasons  are: 

(a)  The  margin  between  the  buying  and  selling  price  is  less  in 
the  case  of  yearlings.     The  older  cattle  fatten  in  a  shorter  period. 

(b )  It  is  not  generally  advisable  to  try  to  finish  the  cheaper  grades 
of  yearlings.  In  our  investigations,  the  quality  of  the  yearlings  has 
generally  been  higher  than  that  of  the  older  cattle.  In  spite  of  this  fact, 
the  financial  results  have  seemed  to  favor  the  feeding  of  older  cattle. 

When  all  evidence  as  to  the  comparative  merits  of  calves,  year- 
lings, and  older  cattle  for  feeding  purposes  is  summed  up,  the  out- 
standing points  are  as  follows: 

1.  Young  animals,  which  are  fattened  as  they  grow,  make  cheaper 
gains  than  older  animals.  This  is  the  chief  advantage  of  the  young 
animal. 

2.  The  older  animals  enjoy  a  wider  margin  between  cost  price 
and  selling  price  per  pound,  they  fatten  in  less  time,  and  the  cost  of 
feed  per  head  is  practically  the  same  as  for  the  younger  animals. 
These  are  the  chief  advantages  of  the  older  animal. 

In  the  investigations  which  have  been  made  by  our  state  experi- 
ment stations,  the  advantages  of  the  older  animal  outweighed  the  ad- 


iMo.  Bui.  90. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  113 

vantage  of  the  younger  animal,  making  the  two-year-olds  more  profit- 
able than  the  yearlings  or  calves.  Furthermore,  a  table  of  costs  and 
prices  does  not  fully  emphasize  the  marked  ability  of  the  older  animal 
to  consume  roughage  during  the  fattening  period.  Where  considerable 
quantities  of  silage,  hay,  or  other  roughage  must  be  utilized,  and  this 
is  very  frequently  the  case,  older  steers  are  desirable.  Nevertheless, 
in  some  instances  and  in  certain  years,  the  younger  animals  may  be 
preferable.  For  example,  with  higher  cost  of  older  steers,  and  lower 
price  of  feeds,  calves  may  be  purchased  and  fed  at  a  greater  profit. 
Another  point  which  is  frequently  of  practical  importance  is  the  fact 
that  the  initial  cost  of  calves  per  head  is  much  less  than  that  of  older 
cattle.  Three  or  four  calves  may  be  bought  for  the  price  of  one  two- 
year-old  steer,  and  the  feed-lot  may  be  filled  at  a  much  smaller  outlay 


Mm 

^'^^BlK^^^^K.-'  -L        -^^ 

Fig.  28. — An  average  load  of  steers  on  feed. 

of  capital.     For  this  reason,  some  farmers  must  feed  calves  if  they  are 
to  feed  at  all. 

2.  The  form  should  be  as  nearly  identical  as  possible  with  the 
description  given  for  the  fat  steer.  Allowances  must,  of  course,  be 
made  for  the  absence  of  fat  in  the  thin  animal,  for  we  cannot  expect 
a  thin  steer  to  appear  extremely  blocky  and  low  set.  Yet  even  in  thin 
condition  the  steer  should  be  low  set,  deep,  broad,  compact,  and 
balanced ;  such  conformation  insures  feeding  capacity  and  early  matur- 
ity. Broad,  level  tops  make  possible  a  maximum  development  of  high 
priced  cuts,  and  are  indicative  of  superior  form  in  the  feeder.  High- 
grade  feeders  have  a  straight  top  line  and  straight  underline,  the  two 
being  nearly  parallel.  For  best  results,  a  large  feeding  capacity  is 
of  very  great  importance.  The  muzzle  should  be  broad,  the  barrel 
wide  and  deep,  and  the  flanks  well  let  down.     An  excessive  paunch  is 


114  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

undesirable,  as  it  rarely  disappears  during  fattening  and  shipping  and 
will  lessen  the  price  paid  for  the  finished  steer  on  the  market.  Some 
degree  of  paunchiness  may  be  termed  a  good  fault  in  a  feeder,  but  the 
best  feeders  have  much  depth  and  fullness  of  middle  without  being 
objectionably  paunchy.  The  feeder  should  have  as  much  smoothness 
as  is  consistent  with  thinness.  Too  great  prominence  of  shoulders, 
hips,  and  tail-head  should  be  avoided.  There  should  be  nothing  in 
his  form  that  will  prevent  a  high  degree  of  smoothness  being  secured 
when  he  is  fattened.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  proportions  of 
the  head  and  neck  correspond  with  the  type  of  body,  and  in  making 
selections  of  young  thin  cattle  these  are  dependable  indicators  of  the 
turn  the  form  will  take  during  development  and  finishing. 

The  head  demands  far  more  attention  in  the  feeder  than  in  the 
finished  steer.  We  look  for  what  is  termed  the  "feeder's  head,"  that 
is,  a  head  of  much  width  between  the  eyes,  short  and  clean-cut  from 
eyes  to  muzzle,  very  broad  at  the  muzzle,  but  not  coarse,  large  of 
nostril,  and  strongly  muscled  and  well  developed  in  cheeks  and  jaws. 
The  eye  should  be  large,  prominent,  bright,  clear,  and  placid.  Polled 
or  dehorned  cattle  are  preferred  by  feeders,  although  this  feature  does 
not  affect  the  grading  of  the  animal  on  the  market.  More  hornless 
cattle  can  be  put  in  the  feed-lot  or  car,  and  they  make  more  rapid 
gains  on  feed  because  of  less  commotion  and  less  difficulty  in  getting 
up  to  the  feed-racks.  Timid  animals  are  much  more  likely  to  get  their 
share  of  the  feed  if  all  the  cattle  are  polled  or  dehorned.  Hornless 
cattle  shrink  less  in  shipment,  the  carcasses  show  fewer  bruises,  and 
the  hides  are  more  valuable.  Gashes  and  punctures  in  hides  caused 
by  goring  are  not  uncommon.  Being  in  greater  demand,  hornless 
cattle  sell  at  slightly  higher  prices.  Dehorning  gives  cattle  a  setback, 
causes  wildness  for  a  time,  and  is  not  advisable  if  cattle  are  to  be  put 
on  feed  immediately,  except  in  the  case  of  calves  or  yearlings  that  are 
to  be  given  a  long  feed.  ^ 


1  Light  and  Rothwell  of  the  Canadian  Department  of  Agriculture  reported  in 
1922  (Pamphlet  15,  New  Series,  Dehorn  Your  Commercial  Cattle)  that  35  steers 
dehorned  after  purchase  made  an  average  gain  of  31  pounds  per  head  during  the  first 
month,  while  17  steers  hornless  at  time  of  purchase  made  an  average  gain  of  51.9 
pounds.  For  the  entire  feeding  period  the  average  gain  was  231  pounds  for  the  horn- 
less steers  and  186.3  pounds  for  those  dehorned  after  purchase.  The  pamphlet 
quotes  one  of  the  largest  commission  firms  in  the  United  States  as  follows:  "The 
absence  of  horns  on  a  bunch  of  steers  usually  adds  15  to  25  cents  per  cwt.  to  their 
value.  All  buyers  prefer  dehorned  steers,  even  for  local  slaughter,  as  the  carcasses 
are  likely  to  be  free  from  bruises  and  injuries;  but  the  most  important  fact  is  that 
many  eastern  shippers  refuse  to  bid  on  horned  cattle  on  account  of  the  practical 
certainty  that  some  of  them  will  be  injured  in  transit.  In  the  case  of  a  bunch  of 
steers  that  except  for  their  horns  would  just  suit  the  eastern  shipper,  the  difference 
may  amount  to  as  much  as  25  to  50  cents  per  cwt."  A  commission  firm  in  western 
Canada  is  quoted  as  stating  that  they  have  handled  carloads  of  steers  and  heifers 
so  badly  hooked  that  they  sold  at  a  discount  of  from  $1  to  ^2  per  cwt. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  115 

3.  Quality. — The  indications  of  quality  in  beef  cattle  have  been 
discussed.  Quality  and  good  breeding  are  usually  found  in  company, 
and  good  breeding  surely  "tells"  in  the  feed-lot.  Quality  also  insures 
smoothness  and  a  higher  dressing  percentage,  points  of  much  impor- 
tance in  the  eyes  of  the  buyer  of  fat  cattle.  Coarse,  staggy  heads  and 
necks  indicate  late  castration.  Stags  sell  at  a  discount  on  the  fat 
steer  market. 

4.  Constitution  and  thrift. — ^A  wide,  deep  chest,  full  heart-girth, 
and  deep,  broad  body  are  evidences  of  a  strong  constitution.  Avoid 
that  steer  which  has  quality  carried  to  the  point  of  delicacy,  as  only 
vigorous,  rugged  cattle  make  big  gains  on  feed.  When  choosing  be- 
tween two  steers,  one  of  which  is  too  refined  in  head,  hide,  and  bone, 
and  the  other  a  trifle  too  rugged,  or  what  might  be  termed  slightly 
on  the  coarse  order,  it  will  usually  be  wisest  to  select  the  more  rugged 
steer;  he  will  usually  consume  more  feed,  gain  more  consistently,  and 
make  his  gains  at  less  cost  than  will  the  over-refined  animal. 

A  thrifty,  healthy  steer  makes  known  the  fact  in  a  bright,  clear  eye, 
sleek  coat  of  hair,  and  a  loose,  sappy  hide.  He  is  wide  awake  and 
gives  evidence  that  he  "feels  good."  Avoid  the  steer  with  the  small, 
dull  eye;  tight  hide;  dry,  staring  coat;  hanging  head;  and  lifeless  gait. 
Red  blood  and  good  health  indicate  ability  to  assimilate  feed  and  make 
gains. 

5.  Natural  fleshing. — This  refers  to  lean  meat  or  muscle.  As 
previously  pointed  out,  feeding  does  not  add  muscle  to  an  animal;  the 
muscle  must  be  born  on  the  steer.  The  cattle  feeder's  job  is  to  fatten 
beef,  and  he  must  buy  the  beef  or  muscle  when  he  buys  his  steers. 
Look  for  muscular  necks,  backs,  loins,  and  rounds.  Such  steers  bring 
the  best  prices  when  properly  fattened. 

6.  Condition  counts  in  judging  feeders.  The  more  fat  a  feeder 
steer  carries,  the  quicker  and  cheaper  he  may  be  finished.  Type  and 
price  being  equal,  fleshy  feeders  are  more  desirable  than  thin  ones. 
Furthermore,  if  the  steer  is  too  thin  he  cannot  class  as  a  feeder,  but 
instead  is  classed  as  a  stocker.  Stockers  are  thin  enough  to  make  gains 
in  condition  on  grass  or  roughage.  Feeders  carry  more  flesh  and  are 
ready  for  the  feed-lot.  Experienced  cattle  men  buy  as  much  condition 
as  possible  when  they  buy  their  feeders. 

7.  Breeding. — Steers  of  good  beef  breeding  are  much  preferred 
over  those  which  have  more  or  less  of  a  scrub  or  dairy  ancestry.  We 
look  for  evidences  of  beef  breeding  in  the  form,  quality,  fleshing,  and 
color  of  the  animals.  The  beef-bred  animal  is  more  rectangular  in 
build,  more  compact  and  blocky,  and  lower  set  than  the  dairy-bred 
steer.  The  steer  of  beef  breeding  is  plumper  and  thicker  in  his  muscles 
throughout.     The  dairy-bred  steer  stands  high  off  the  ground,  has  a 


116  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

long,  narrow  head,  cuts  up  in  the  flank,  is  spht  up  in  the  twist,  "cat 
hammed,"  and  rough  in  conformation  over  the  hips  and  rump.  His 
bone  is  usually  too  fine,  and  his  hide  too  thin  and  "papery"  in  texture. 
Coarse,  rough  steers,  with  coarse,  plain  heads,  show  lack  of  good 
ancestry.  The  wide,  short,  clean-cut  head,  with  broad  muzzle,  good 
eye,  and  marked  indications  of  what  is  often  termed  "character,"  may 
be  accepted  as  one  of  the  very  best  evidences  not  only  of  beef  breeding, 
but  of  good  beef  breeding.  The  more  one  deals  with  feeder  cattle  the 
more  one  learns  to  study  heads  and  to  place  reliance  on  what  the  head 
indicates  as  to  form,  quality,  feeding  capacity,  constitution,  thrift, 
breeding,  and  disposition. 

The  colors  of  the  beef  breeds  are  certainly  preferred  in  feeder  steers, 
but  many  scrub  animals  masquerade  under  these  colors.  Red,  roan, 
or  black  are  frequently  found  in  animals  carrying  a  very  small  percent- 
age of  Shorthorn,  Hereford,  Aberdeen-Angus,  or  Galloway  blood.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  polled  head  of  the  Aberdeen-Angus,  Galloway, 
Polled  Shorthorn,  and  Polled  Hereford.  Well-bred  beef  steers  carry 
the  colors  of  the  beef  breeds,  but  these  colors  do  not  always  cover  well- 
bred  beef  steers.  Color  alone  is  not  a  safe  guide  to  good  breeding. 
Color  gives  unmistakable  evidence,  however,  if  it  is  the  fawn  or  spotted 
white  and  fawn  of  the  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  or  the  black  and  white 
markings  of  the  Holstein.  In  such  cases,  color  furnishes  all  the  evi- 
dence we  need  as  to  the  breeding  of  the  animal.  As  to  which  of  the 
beef  breeds  should  be  given  preference  when  selecting  feeders,  that  is 
almost  entirely  a  matter  of  personal  fancy.  They  are  all  good,  and 
there  is  no  best.  There  are  differences  to  be  sure,  but  none  great 
enough  to  claim  attention  here. 

8.  Disposition. — >Nervous,  restless  cattle  are  profit-losers  on  feed. 
In  many  instances,  with  proper  handling,  such  steers  quiet  down  a 
great  deal  as  the  feeding  period  progresses,  but  in  many  other  instances 
this  is  not  true.  The  eye  and  the  carriage  of  the  head,  ears,  and  tail 
are  indications  of  the  disposition.  A  high-headed,  wild-eyed  steer,  with 
ears  in  motion  to  catch  the  slightest  sound,  stampedes  on  the  least 
provocation.  The  poll  of  the  head  should  be  carried  only  slightly 
higher  than  the  line  of  the  back,  and  the  eyes  should  be  placid  in  ex- 
pression, indicating  a  quiet,  contented  feeder  that  will  make  gains  in 
proportion  to  the  feed  he  consumes,  instead  of  wasting  his  energy  in 
nervousness  and  frightened  antics. 

9.  Style. — A  low-backed,  awkward,  slouching  kind  of  a  steer  may 
feed  as  well  and  yield  as  good  a  carcass  as  a  wide-awake,  straight- 
lined  steer  that  stands  squarely  on  his  legs,  but  other  things  being 
equal  the  latter  steer  looks  much  better  and  attracts  more  favorable 
attention  on  the  market  than  the  former.    A  steer  of  good  style  shows 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


117 


for  all  he  is  worth.  The  other  kind  fail  to  make  a  good  impression  at 
first  sight,  and  on  a  crowded  market  this  may  mean  much. 

10.  Uniformity  in  size  and  color  adds  much  to  the  attractiveness 
of  a  load  of  cattle,  and  in  buying  feeders  this  point  is  worthy  of  atten- 
tion. They  look  better  in  the  feed-lot,  and  an  even  load  of  steers 
attracts  more  attention  on  the  market  than  does  a  mixture  of  all  sizes, 
colors,  and  sorts. 

Other  factors. — In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  other  points  may  well 
be  considered  in  selecting  feeders.  Avoid  cattle  that  have  cuts,  sores, 
or  lumps  on  them  anywhere,  especially  those  showing  lumpy  jaw. 
Avoid  blind  steers,  lame  ones,  and  those  with  crooked  legs.  Big, 
sprawling  brands  affect  the  value  of  the  hide.  When  determining  upon 
the  price,  remember  to  consider  the  amount  of  fill  the  cattle  will  carry 


Fig.  29. — Fancy  feeder  calves. 

to  the  scales.  In  buying  at  the  large  markets,  avoid  "stale"  cattle, 
which  means  those  that  have  been  on  the  market  several  days  and  are 
too  well  filled.  Watch  the  droppings  for  evidence  of  grain  feeding,  and 
give  preference  to  grass-fed  cattle  as  they  are  usually  more  thrifty  and 
respond  better  to  grain  feeding.  A  steer  that  has  had  grain  to  put  him 
in  feeder  condition  may  be  looked  on  with  suspicion.  He  may  be  a 
hard  feeder  and  poor  doer. 

Go  to  the  market  and  accompany  the  commission  man  when  he 
buys  your  feeders.  You  will  learn  much  from  your  visit  to  the  market 
and  the  commission  man  will  be  aided  by  knowing  exactly  the  kind  of 
cattle  you  want. 

Advantages  of  cattle  feeding.^— The  reasons  for  fattening  a  steer 
are  many  and  important,  even  though  feeding  does  not  increase  the 
proportion  of  lean  meat  or  muscle.     They  are  as  follows: 


118  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

1.  Feeding  increases  the  value  of  the  steer. 

(a)  Adds  weight  to  the  animal. 

(b)  Improves  the  form  and  appearance. 

(c)  Increases  the  dressing  percentage. 

(d)  Covers  the  carcass  with  fat  so  that  it  may  be  held  in  the 
cooler  long  enough  to  ripen. 

(e)  The  marbling  expands  the  lean  meat,  making  the  steer 
thicker  in  all  his  cuts. 

(f)  Makes  the  beef  more  tender  and  juicy. 

(g)  Fat  beef  cooks  much  better  than  lean  beef. 
(h)     Fat  meat  is  more  nutritious  than  lean  meat. 

2.  Utilizes  as  feed  much  that  would  otherwise  be  waste  on  the 
farm. 

3.  Gives  employment  to  labor  when  other  farm  work  is  slack. 

4.  Makes  easily  possible  the  maintenance  and  improvement  of 
soil  fertility. 

5.  Cattle  feeding,  properly  managed,  is  a  profitable  enterprise. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  CATTLE 

[^  Six  well-defined  classes  of  cattle  are  recognized  at  the  large  live- 
stock markets.  Each  class  is  divided  into  several  grades.  The  six 
general  classes  and  their  requirements  are  briefly  as  follows: 

1.  Beef  steers— including  all  steers  suitable  for  block  beef. 

2.  Butcher  stock — including  all  heifers,  cows,  bulls,  and  stags 
suitable  for  block  beef. 

3.  Cutters  and  canners — including  mostly  thin  cows  and  bulls, 
but  also  inferior  steers,  heifers,  stags,  and  calves  not  suitable  for  feeding 
and  too  inferior  to  yield  a  carcass  suitable  for  block  use. 

4.  Veal  calves — including  all  grades  of  veal  calves. 

5.  Stockers  and  feeders — including  thin  calves,  yearlings,  two- 
year-olds,  and  older  cattle.     It  includes  steers,,  heifers,  cows,  and  bulls. 

6.  Milkers  and  springers. — These  are  cattle  of  dairy  breeding 
which  are  usually  more  valuable  for  milking  purposes  than  for  beef. 
They  are  sorted  out  and  sold  for  dairy  purposes. 

The  grades. — The  cattle  in  each  class  are  graded  according  to 
their  relative  value.  The  grades  are  (1)  prime,  or  fancy  selected,  (2) 
choice,  (3)  good,  (4)  medium,  and  (5)  common.  The  term  "fair" 
means  the  same  as  "medium"  and  is  frequently  substituted  for  it. 
"Inferior"  or  "poor"  are  sometimes  substituted  for  "common."  In 
some  classes  there  is  no  grade  better  than  choice,  and  in  other  classes 
there  are  no  grades  better  than  good.  As  the  term  "prime"  indicates 
a  high  degree  of  condition  or  finish,  the  best  grade  of  feeder  steers  and 
feeder  calves  is  termed  "fancy  selected-" 

Definitions  of  class  and  grade.-v-As  shown  above,  cattle  are  classed 
according  to  the  use  for  which  they  are  adapted  and  sold.  The  cattle 
in  each  class  are  graded  according  to  the  degree  with  which  they  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  class.  Briefly,  then,  cattle  are  classed  accord- 
ing to  use  and  graded  according  to  value. 

A  market  class  may  be  defined  as  a  group  or  division  including  all 
animals  on  the  market  adapted  and  sold  for  a  certain  commercial  use. 

A  grade  may  be  defined  as  a  division  of  a  market  class  including  all 
animals  of  about  the  same  value  per  cwt. 

The  principal  factors  determining  the  use  and  value  of  market 
cattle  are  form,  quality,  condition,  weight,  age,  and  sex. 

Distinction  between  type  and  market  class.— A  type  represents  an 
ideal  which  the  breeder  or  feeder  is  endeavoring  to  produce.     Types 

119 


120 


Types  and  Market.  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


represent  only  the  most  highly  desirable  or  profitable  sorts  of  animals, 
while  there  are  market  classes  for  all  sorts  of  animals — profitable  and 
unprofitable  from  the  producer's  standpoint.  The  less  profitable 
market  classes  are  filled  incidentally,  not  through  any  design  of  the 
breeder.  Some  market  classes  are  composed  of  animals  that  have 
already  served  one  or  more  purposes;  having  outlived  their  usefulness 
they  are  discarded  and  sent  to  market.  The  market  is  accommodating; 
it  provides  a  place  for  all  sorts  of  odds  and  ends,  and  hunts  up  a  use  for 
them.  Thus  some  market  classes  persist  which  at  first  thought  have 
no  excuse  for  being.     Everything  classifies  somewhere. 


at  Ch 


d  on 


grass.     In  the  background  appears  a  scales-house  where  cattle  are  weighed  to  the 
buyer  when  sold. 

General  market  terms.V— Before  describing  the  market  classes  and 
grades,  some  of  the  general  descriptive  terms  used  in  the  cattle  market 
need  explanation.  As  applied  to  market  cattle  these  general  terms 
have  no  direct  bearing  on  the  market  classification,  but  they  serve  to 
indicate,  in  a  more  or  less  general  manner,  where  the  cattle  were  raised 
and  how  they  were  fed.  Inasmuch  as  the  cattle  of  many  sections  of 
the  country  possess  certain  rather  well-marked  characteristics,  these 
general  descriptive  terms  are  significant  and  are  useful  in  describing 
the  character  of  market  off"erings. 

Native  and  western  cattle. — Native  cattle  are  those  originating  on 
the  farms  of  the  Central  West,  East,  and  South.     Western  cattle  are 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  121 

branded  cattle  from  Texas  and  the  West.  Natives  and  westerns  have 
practically  the  same  uses  and  both  are  found  in  all  market  classes, 
except  that  western  cattle  supply  no  milkers  and  springers,  and  com- 
paratively few  veal  calves. 

Western  cattle  are  much  more  uniform  than  natives,  being  largely 
of  beef  breeding,  mostly  Hereford.  An  infusion  of  Shorthorn  breeding 
is  noticeable  in  many  of  the  cattle  from  the  Dakotas,  Wyoming,  Color- 
ado, and  Utah.  Western  cattle  are  frequently  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  the  state  from  which  they  come  to  market,  as  "Texans," 
"Montanas,"  "Wyomings,"  etc. 

Natives  include  all  types,  breeds,  and  kinds  of  cattle,  of  beef, 
dairy,  and  nondescript  breeding.  The  term  "southerns"  is  applied  to 
natives  produced  in  the  southern  states,  particularly  to  cattle  from 
sections  in  the  Middle  South  where  the  breeding  is  inferior. 

As  a  rule,  branded  cattle  sell  at  a  discount  because  of  the  damage 
to  the  hide.  In  cases  of  brands  on  the  body,  the  damage  to  the  hide 
is  estimated  anywhere  from  5  to  15  cents  per  cwt.,  according  to  size  and 
location,  and  in  extreme  cases  where  there  is  a  big,  sprawling  side  brand, 
covering  a  large  part  of  the  surface,  the  discount  will  be  very  much 
higher,  as  it  practically  spoils  half  the  hide. 

Grassers  and  fed  cattle. — "Grassers"  are  cattle  direct  from  pas- 
tures without  grain  feeding.  "Corn  feds"  are  cattle  from  corn-belt 
feed-lots.  "Fed  westerns"  are  western  cattle  that  have  been  finished 
on  a  ration  of  corn  or  other  concentrates,  usually  in  the  corn  belt. 
"Grass  westerns"  are  cattle  direct  from  western  ranges.  Many  grass 
cattle  sell  as  stockers  and  feeders,  and  after  being  fattened  in  the  feed- 
lot  they  return  to  market  as  fed  cattle.  Grass  cattle  are  subject  to 
greater  shrinkage  in  shipping  than  are  fed  cattle.  "Short  feds"  are 
moderately  fat  cattle  marketed  after  a  60-  to  90-day  feeding  period. 
Cattle  coming  from  a  very  short  feed  are  often  described  as  "warmed 
up;"  they  show  some  effects  of  grain  feeding,  but  are  considerably 
lacking  in  finish. 

Grass  cattle,  both  westerns  and  natives,  are  most  numerous  on  the 
market  during  September,  October,  and  November.  The  closing  of 
the  pasture  season  and  the  approach  of  winter  bring  the  heavy  runs 
which  feature  the  fall  months.  The  movement  of  cattle  from  Texas 
and  the  Southwest  usually  begins  in  May  and  continues  into  October, 
and  other  western  cattle  direct  from  range  pastures  make  a  heavy  run 
from  August  1  to  December  1. 

Fed  cattle  are  most  numerous  during  the  late  winter  and  spring 
months.  Thin  grass  cattle  are  taken  out  for  feeding  in  the  fall  and 
early  winter  after  the  corn  crop  is  harvested,  and  most  of  these  are 
finished  and  returned  to  market  during  the  winter  and  spring  before 


122  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

crops  need  attention.     From  June  1  to  December  1,  fed  cattle  are  less 
numerous  on  the  markets: 

Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Cattle  and  Calves 

Following  is  the  complete  outline  of  the  market  classes  and  grades 
of  cattle  and  calves. 

Classes  Grades 

BEEF  STEERS: 

Heavy  weight,  1,300  lbs.  up 1 

Medium  weight,  1,100-1,300  lbs [Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common 

Light  weight,  1,100  lbs.  down J 

BUTCHER  STOCK: 

Heifers Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common 

Cows Choice,  good,  medium,  common 

Bulls Choice,  good,  medium,  common 

Stags Choice,  good,  medium,  common 

CUTTERS  AND  CANNERS: 

Bologna  bulls Good,  medium,  common 

Cutters Good,  medium,  common 

Canners Good,  medium,  common 

VEAL  CALVES: 

Light  weight,  110  lbs.  down 1 

KuVSetht^&'-leiYbs; :.::;:::  |c»oice,  .ood.  medium,  common 

Heavy  weight,  260  lbs.  up J 

STOCKERS  AND  FEEDERS: 
fl,000  lbs.  up    ] 

Steers  -1750-1,000  lbs.   [ Fancy  selected,  choice,  good,  medium, 

[750  lbs.  down  J  common 

Calves Fancy  selected,  choice,  good,  medium, 

common 

Heifers Choice,  good,  medium,  common 

Cows Choice,  good,  medium,  common 

Bulls Choice,  good,  medium,  common 

MILKERS  AND  SPRINGERS 

Beef  Steers 

The  beef  steer  class  includes  both  fed  steers  and  grass  steers,  but 
the  proportion  of  fed  cattle  is  much  higher  than  in  any  other  class. 
Most  beef  steers  show  the  effects  of  good  feeding,  and  all  beef  steers 
are  suitable  for  block-beef  use. 

Beef  steers  are  the  most  important  and  highest  priced  class  of 
killing  cattle  on  the  market.  They  sell  to  local  packers  for  immediate 
slaughter,  or  to  order  buyers  who  ship  them  for  slaughter  to  Boston, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Cleveland,  and  many  other  cities. 
They  dress  from  55  to  67  per  cent  and  their  carcasses  supply  the  highest 
class  of  trade,  including  hotels,  restaurants,  clubs,  and  the  best  retail 
trade.  The  grades  of  beef  steers  are  prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  and 
common.  Form,  quality,  and  condition  are  the  chief  factors  determin- 
ing the  grade  and  price. 

Three  divisions  may  be  made  in  the  beef  steer  class  according  to 
weight — heavy,  medium,  and  light.     These  are  important  because  at 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  123 

times  higher  prices  are  paid  for  one  weight  than  another.  At  times 
choice  medium-weights  sell  higher  than  choice  heavy-weights,  and  vice 
versa.  Light  weights  are  frequently  referred  to  as  "yearlings."  Baby 
beeves  are  included  here,  together  with  all  other  steers  weighing  less 
than  1,100  pounds  and  carrying  sufficient  finish  for  block-beef  pur- 
poses. At  times  choice  and  prime  light-weight  steers  bring  the  highest 
prices,  the  prices  paid  for  the  different  weights  varying  in  relation  to 
supply  and  demand. 

Heavy  steers,  weighing  1,300  pounds  and  up,  supply  heavy  car- 
casses weighing  about  750  pounds  and  up.  These  are  used  by  hotels, 
restaurants,  and  clubs  in  large  cities.  James  Brown,  in  charge  of 
cattle  buying  for  Armour  and  Company,  states  ^  that  the  demand  for 


Fig.  31. — Prime  beef  steers. 

heavy  finished  cattle  takes  only  about  15  per  cent  of  the  receipts.  He 
states  that  the  demand  for  such  cattle  is  steady  and  that  the  supply 
is  frequently  limited  from  August  1  to  February  1,  excepting  cattle 
finished  for  fat-stock  shows  and  for  the  Christmas  trade.  At  such 
times  steers  weighing  1,400  pounds  or  over  often  bring  $1  to  $2  more 
than  smaller  steers  of  the  same  grade.  Late  March  and  April  may 
bring  too  many  heavy  steers,  and  a  few  too  many  can  readily  glut  the 
market,  resulting  in  a  lower  price  for  heavy  weights  than  for  the 
lighter  beeves. 

The  divisions  of  the  beef  steer  class  according  to  weight  (and 
corresponding  divisions  in  other  classes)  have  been  commonly  referred 


Progressive  Beef  Cattle  Raising,  Armour  and  Company,  1920,  p. 


124  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

to  by  writers  as  "sub-classes,"  and  that  term  was  used  in  the  earlier 
editions  of  this  book.  Arthur  C.  Davenport,  manager  of  the  Chicago 
Daily  Drovers  Journal,  in  a  recent  book  entitled  "The  American  Live- 
stock Market — How  It  Functions,"  makes  the  very  good  criticism 
that  "no  buyer  or  seller  on  any  of  the  markets  ever  uses  the  expression 
'sub-classes'  nor  would  he  have  the  slightest  idea  what  was  meant, 
nor  is  it  ever  used  in  market  newspaper  reports."  The  divisions  of 
the  beef  steer  class  according  to  weight  are  in  reality  sub-classes,  but 
there  are  good  reasons  why  this  term  should  not  be  used,  and  with  the 
exception  of  this  paragraph  and  the  accompanying  foot-note,  the  term 
has  been  omitted  from  the  present  edition  of  this  book.  ^ 


Fig.  32.— Choice  beef  steers. 


Prime  steers.-vThis  is  the  most  select  grade  of  the  beef  steer  class. 
Buyers  for  eastern  markets  take  most  of  this  grade,  and  packers  take 
the  rest.     Prime  steers  arepractically  above  criticism  in  form,  quality, 


^In  a  communication  to  the  writer,  Mr.  Davenport  states  that  the  divisions 
of  various  market  classes  which  are  often  termed  "sub-classes"  are  in  fact  and  in 
reality  just  that,  but  he  adds  that  if  he  were  teaching  a  class  of  students  he  would 
not  attempt  to  give  a  name  to  the  sub-classes,  except  to  state  that  they  are  divisions 
of  a  class.  He  further  states:  "There  are  many  things  in  the  system  of  classifying 
and  grading  live  stock  that  are  not  exactly  logical  and  are  quite  different  from  what 
any  well-posted  individual  might  outline  if  called  upon  to  outline  a  system  from 
the  foundation  up.  Of  course  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  system  in  vogue  has 
grown  up  through  long  years  of  practice  and  for  that  very  reason  it  is  a  most  difficult 
thing  to  effect  any  change  in  the  system.  I  have  watched  with  a  great  deal  of 
interest  the  efforts  of  the  Bureau  of  Markets  and  have  cooperated  with  them  to 
bring  about  some  very  much  needed  changes  along  the  line  of  uniformity  but,  as 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


125 


and  fatness.  They  show  a  high  development  of  flesh  in  loin,  back, 
thighs,  twist,  and  rump,  are  very  broad  and  deep,  and  are  free  from 
paunchiness.  The  head  is  medium-sized  and  clean-cut.  The  bone  is 
clean  and  fine,  the  skin  pliable  and  medium  thick,  and  the  outlines  are 
smooth  and  well  rounded.  The  flesh  is  abundant  in  all  parts,  and  is 
firm,  yet  mellow  and  springy  to  the  touch.  There  are  no  rolls  or 
patches  of  fat,  but  a  smooth,  even,  deep,  firm  fleshing  everywhere. 
Very  few  steers  come  to  market  which  grade  as  prime.  On  the  Chicago 
market  at  the  conclusion  of  the  International  Live  Stock  Exposition, 
which  is  held  at  the  Union  Stock  Yards  in  December,  most  of  the  fat 
steers  are  sold,  and  these  are  usually  prime,  but  it  requires  much 
searching  to  locate  cattle  of  this  grade  at  other  periods  of  the  year. 


Fig.  '.j'-j.  -Good  beef  steers. 


Choice  steers.-^If  a  steer  is  not  quite  right  in  quality  or  condition, 
but  still  possesses  to  a  marked  degree  the  characteristics  most  sought 
by  packers  and  shippers,  he  is  called  a  choice  steer. 


someone  remarked  recently,  'It  may  take  a  generation  or  two  before  it  can  be  put 
over.'  " 

It  may  be  argued  that  if  "sub-class"  is  a  term  entirely  correct  so  far  as  meaning 
is  concerned  in  its  application  to  class  divisions,  then  it  may  be  best  to  promote  rather 
than  to  discourage  its  use,  in  the  expectation  that  it  may  eventually  come  into  use 
on  the  markets.  After  consideration  of  this  point,  the  writer  decided  that  Daven- 
port's viewpoint  is  the  better  one.  He  states  that  students  who  have  studied  market 
classifications,  coming  to  the  yards,  talk  about  sub-classes,  and  stock-yards  men 
immediately  size  them  up  as  having  theoretical  knowledge  only.  If  the  term  "sub- 
class" can  be  omitted  from  outlines  and  descriptions  of  market  classifications  without 
seriously  affecting  their  clearness,  it  is  best  to  do  so.  That  idea  has  been  followed 
in  the  present  edition  of  this  book. 


126 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


Good  steers. — Good  beef  steers  may  be  of  very  good  quality,  but 
noticeably  lacking  in  condition  or  finish;  they  may  be  finished  or  in 
prime  condition,  yet  lacking  in  quality;  or  they  may  be  noticeably 
deficient  in  both  quality  and  condition,  but  still  good  enough  to  be 
above  the  average  grade  of  beef  steers  received  at  the  markets.  By 
far  the  largest  number  of  steers  belonging  to  the  good  grade  may  be 
said  to  be  a  little  on  the  coarse  order;  they  are  fat  and  of  good  weight, 
but  rather  plain. 

Medium  steers. — These  are  of  about  average  quality  and  condi- 
tion, lacking  to  a  marked  degree  the  finish  and  quality  demanded  in  a 
prime  steer.     They  are  generally  too  paunchy  and  too  lacking  in  condi- 


FlG.  34. — Common  beef  steers. 

tion  and  quality  to  dress  a  high  percentage  of  beef  or  show  a  good 
proportion  of  fat.  Many  grassers  and  warmed-up  steers  grade  here, 
and  also  dairy-type  steers  carrying  a  fair  amount  of  finish.  The  beef 
from  such  steers  is  not  good  enough  to  meet  the  demands  of  dealers 
in  beef  of  the  best  quality,  nor  is  the  proportion  of  the  high-priced  cuts 
large.  Steers  of  good  form  and  quality  but  very  deficient  in  condition 
may  grade  as  medium  beef  steers,  or  they  may  sell  as  feeders,  depending 
on  the  season  and  on  the  supply  and  demand. 

Common  steers. — This  is  the  lowest  grade  of  beef  steers  coming  to 
the  market.  They  are  very  much  lacking  in  form,  quality,  and  condi- 
tion. This  grade  includes  those  steers  which  are  too  thin  to  sell  among 
the  higher  grades  of  beef  steers,  and  too  coarse  and  rough  to  be  sold 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  127 

as  stockers  and  feeders.  The  best  that  can  be  said  of  them  is  that 
they  carry  enough  condition  to  escape  classing  as  cutters.  Many  are 
of  dairy  type  and  breeding. 

Heifers.^ — Two  to  four  heifers  mixed  in  with  a  load  of  beef  steers 
may  be  passed  without  any  cut  in  price  if  they  are  similar  to  the  steers 
in  all  respects  except  sex.  This  is  more  often  true  of  mixed  loads  of 
light-weight  steers  and  heifers  than  of  heavy  weights.  With  greater 
weight  and  maturity,  differences  due  to  sex  become  more  noticeable. 

Butcher  Stock 

Butcher  stock  includes  lieifers,  cows,  bulls,  and  stags  sold  for 


i<i(;.   i5. — Prime  butcher  heifer. 

slaughter  and  suitable  for  block-beef  purposes.  They  dress  from  50 
to  61  per  cent.  The  carcasses  are  largely  sold  to  city  and  country 
retail  dealers  or  butchers,  hence  the  term  "butcher  stock"  is  applied 
to  this  class  of  market  cattle.  Butcher  stock  includes  some  fed  cattle, 
but  it  contains  a  much  larger  proportion  of  grass  cattle  than  does  the 
beef  steer  class. 

Heifers. — The  grades  of  butcher  heifers  are  prime,  choice,  good, 
medium,  and  common.  The  same  conformation,  quality,  and  condi- 
tion are  demanded  in  prime  heifers  that  have  already  been  noted  as 
characteristic  of  prime  steers.  The  only  noteworthy  difference  is  that 
of  sex.  (See  Fig.  26.)  Choice  and  good  heifers  are  very  similar  to 
steers  of  the  same  grades.     The  medium  and  common  grades  contain 


128  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

many  heavier,  older,  and  plainer  heifers  that  are  nearly  matured  and 
are  very  similar  to  cows.  They  show  more  prominence  of  hip,  more 
roughness,  and  more  unevenness  of  covering  than  do  younger  heifers. 
The  number  of  heifers  sold  at  the  central  markets  annually  is  less 
than  one-third  the  number  of  steers.  ^  This  is  because  most  heifers 
are  kept  on  farms  and  ranges  for  breeding  and  are  marketed  later  as 
cows.  Inasmuch  as  heifers  are  not  taken  out  for  feeding  to  the  same 
extent  as  steers,  a  larger  proportion  of  the  heifers  received  at  markets 
are  sold  for  slaughter.  This  explains  why  monthly  receipts  of  butcher 
heifers  are  less  uniform  than  those  of  beef  steers.  Butcher  heifers  are 
marketed  in  much  larger  numbers  in  the  fall  and  early  winter  than  at 


■     rt^^Sft^^lfcl 

liiBi 

Fig.  36. — Good  to  choice  butcher  heifer. 

other  seasons.     However,  the  marketing  of  heifers  is  more  uniformly 
distributed  throughout  the  year  than  that  of  cows. 

Cows. — Butcher  cows  are  graded  choice,  good,  medium,  and 
common.  A  very  few  individual  fat  cows  received  at  markets  might 
be  graded  as  prime.  These  are  strictly  fancy,  well-bred  cows  in  prime 
condition.  Some  of  them  are  purebred  cows  discarded  and  sent  to 
market  because  they  are  non-breeders.  The  supply  is  so  limited  as  to 
be  practically  unimportant.  The  highest  grade  of  cows  sold  in  carload 
lots  and  regularly  quoted,  is  choice,  and  there  are  not  many  of  this 
grade.     Choice  cows  are  prime  in  condition  and  good  in  form,  but 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr,  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  289. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  129 

somewhat  deficient  in  quality.  Good  cows  lack  in  both  condition  and 
quality,  but  are  fat  enough  to  be  reasonably  good  killers.  Medium 
cows  are  poor  in  form,  low  in  condition,  and  deficient  in  quality. 
Common  cows  are  a  still  lower  grade  closely  resembling  cutters  and  at 
times  sold  as  cutters  rather  than  as  butchers. 

Cows  are  marketed  in  large  ©umbers  in  fall  and  early  winter,  and 
at  that  time  cow  slaughter  frequently  exceeds  steer  slaughter.  The 
slaughter  of  cows  is  much  less  uniform  in  numbers  than  that  of  steers. 
This  is  because  most  cows  go  to  slaughter  direct  from  grass  in  the  fall, 
while  many  grass  steers  are  carried  over  for  winter  feeding.  The 
absence  of  a  cow  carry-over  is  felt  in  the  spring  and  early  summer 
when  receipts  of  cows  are  light  and  prices  are  the  highest  of  the  year. 


Fig.  37. — Choice  butcher  cow. 

Usually  the  number  of  cows  slaughtered  in  May  is  about  one-third  the 
number  of  steers  slaughtered  in  that  month. 

Bulls. — The  grades  of  butcher  bulls  are  choice,  good,  medium,  and 
common.  There  are  very  few  choice  bulls;  the  supply  of  these  consists 
of  good  beef  bulls  which  have  become  too  aged  for  further  use  as 
breeders.  Bulls  of  the  good  grade  lack  in  quality  and  condition. 
Medium  bulls  are  deficient  in  form,  quality,  and  condition,  being 
decidedly  on  the  plain  order.  Common  bulls  are  thin,  long  legged, 
and  coarse.  They  are  very  similar  to  bologna  bulls  and  at  times  are 
used  for  the  same  purposes. 

Stags.— Very  few  stags  are  received.  They  are  graded  the  same 
as  bulls,  but  command  a  somewhat  better  price  depending  on  how 
closely  they  resemble  steers  in  form  and  quality. 


130 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


Cutters  and  Canners 

This  class  includes  all  cattle  sold  for  slaughter  which  are  so  defi- 
cient in  condition  that  most  of  the  carcass  or  all  of  the  carcass  will 
not  be  suitable  for  block  use.  It  includes  cows,  heifers,  bulls,  stags, 
calves,  and  steers,  but  the  most  numerous  are  old  cows,  very  paunchy 
and  very  thin.  Many  of  them  are  aged  dairy  cows  which  have  out- 
lived their  usefulness  as  milk  producers.  Cutters  and  canners  dress 
from  35  to  55  per  cent. 

Bologna  bulls. — These  are  bulls  that  are  muscular  but  not  fat 
enough  for  block-beef  purposes.  They  are  especially  suitable  for  the 
manufacture  of  bologna  sausage.  Big,  beefy  Holstein  bulls  are  said 
to  be  best  adapted  to  the  bologna  trade.     The  loins  and  ribs  of  many 


■  ?■         1 

Fig.  38.— Good  cutters. 


bologna  bulls  are  sold  for  block  use  and  the  remainder  of  the  carcass 
is  used  for  bologna  and  dried  beef.  Dried  beef  is  made  almost  entirely 
from  the  rounds,  which  are  cured  in  sweet  pickle,  dried,  and  smoked. 
The  grades  of  bologna  bulls  are  good,  medium,  and  common.  The 
good  grade  closely  approaches  the  common  grade  of  butcher  bulls,  and 
the  common  grade  merges  with  the  best  grade  of  canner  bulls. 

Cutters. — These  are  cattle  inferior  as  killers,  but  which  cannot  be 
used  to  better  advantage  in  any  other  way.  Most  of  them  are  old 
cows,  but  some  heifers  and  steers  are  included  also.  The  loins  and 
ribs  may  be  sold  for  block  use,  but  all  other  parts  of  the  carcass  are 
used  for  barrelled  or  corned  beef,  canned  beef,  and  dried  beef.  Barrell- 
ed or  corned  beef  is  cured  and  packed  in  brine.     Canned  beef  is  given 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  131 

a  mild  cure,  partially  cooked,  and  sealed  in  tin  or  glass  jars,  i  The 
carcasses  of  cutters  are  often  described  as  "shelly,"  meaning  that  they 
are  decidedly  lacking  in  thickness.  They  are  practically  devoid  of  fat. 
Bologna  bulls  are  similar  to  cutters  in  condition  and  in  their  use,  but 
are  more  muscular,  are  classed  separately,  and  sell  at  somewhat  better 
prices.     The  grades  of  cutters  are  good,  medium,  and  common. 

Canners. — This  class  includes  cows,  heifers,  bulls,  stags,  steers, 
and  calves  of  a  very  low,  inferior  order,  too  lacking  in  flesh  to  permit 
of  even  a  part  of  the  carcass  being  sold  over  the  block.  They  are  also 
too  old  and  unthrifty  or  of  such  inferior  type  and  breeding  as  to  render 
them  unfit  for  the  stocker  and  feeder  trade.  They  are  the  very  lowest 
grade  of  cattle  coming  to  market.     Old,  thin  dairy  cows  are  most 


Fig.  39. — Medium  canner  cow. 

numerous  in  this  class,  and  market  men  refer  to  them  as  "Dairy  Maids," 
"Nellies,"  "Hat  Racks,"  "Shells,"  "Skins,"  "Dogs,"  and  "Sea  Horses," 
thus  indicating  their  lack  of  appreciation  for  such  cattle.  The  grades 
of  canners  are  good,  medium,  and  common.  Louis  D.  Hall  states  - 
that  typical  canner  carcasses  have  no  covering  of  fat,  no  kidney  fat, 
and  in  most  cases  only  sufficient  flesh  to  hold  the  bones  together.  The 
flesh  is  generally  very  dark  in  color.  About  one-third  of  the  carcass  is 
used  for  canning  and  sausage  purposes  and  the  remainder  is  "stripped" 
and  sold  as  boneless  fresh  beef  cuts  and  barrelled  beef,  mostly  the 
latter. 


n\\.  Bui.  147,  pp.  208-210. 
2Ibid,  pp.  178,  179. 


132 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


Veal  Calves 

Veal  calves  are  largely  a  by-product  of  the  dairy  industry.  Most 
of  them  are  of  dairy  type  and  breeding,  and  are  not  profitable  to  raise 
for  beef.  The  desired  type  is  a  blocky,  smooth  calf,  with  comparatively 
small  head  and  fine  bone.  The  neck  and  brisket  should  be  full,  ribs 
well  covered,  back  and  loin  wide,  flanks  full,  rump  plump  and  meaty, 
thighs  plump,  and  scrctam  or  udder  full.  The  skin  should  be  mellow 
and  pliable,  the  coat  of  hair  thick,  long,  and  soft,  and  the  tail  bushy. 
L.  D.  Hall  states  ^  that  short,  straight  hair  lying  close  to  the  skin  and 
a  "whiplash"  tail  are  usually  characteristic  of  poorly  finished  calves, 
and  that  properly  finished  native  calves  4  to  6  weeks  old  produce  the 
best  veal,  though  some  choice  calves  are  older.     He  also  states  that 


i-^:4im^'^>--'->>~ 


Fig,  40.— Choice  veal  calf. 


the  dew  claws  harden  at  2  or  3  weeks  of  age,  that  calves  under  3  weeks 
old  are  subject  to  condemnation,  and  that  few  carcasses  weighing  less 
than  50  pounds  are  passed  by  government  meat  inspectors.  Calves 
under  3  weeks  old  are  termed  "deacons"  or  "bob  veal."  A  strictly 
fat  calf  of  150  pounds  is  the  sort  that  tops  the  market.  Calves  are 
dressed  with  the  skin  on,  and  a  well-fattened  calf  dresses  from  65  to 
70  per  cent.  The  best  veal  is  produced  by  milk  feeding  and  good 
management.  Calves  which  have  had  little  milk,  much  exercise  and 
exposure,  and  a  long  shipment  to  market  bring  a  low  price. 

Veal  calves  range  in  weight  from  80  to  450  pounds  and  in  age  from 
3  to  20  weeks  or  over.     They  are  divided  by  weight  into  light  weights. 


111.  Bui.  147,  p.  212. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  133 

handy  weights,  medium  weights,  and  heavy  weights.  Light-weight 
calves  under  110  pounds  are  most  numerous  in  April  and  May,  and  as 
the  season  progresses  the  calves  received  at  the  markets  gradually  be- 
come heavier.  Handy  weights,  ranging  from  110  to  190  pounds,  are 
preferred,  the  best  carrying  high  finish  and  weighing  from  140  to  160 
pounds.  Medium  weights  from  190  to  260  pounds  are  preferred  to 
light  weights.  Heavy  weights  over  260  pounds  bring  the  lowest 
prices. 

The  grades  of  veal  calves  are  choice,  good,  medium,  and  common, 
chiefly  according  to  condition,  weight,  and  age.  Following  are  the 
general  requirements  of  the  various  grades: 

Grade  Condition  Weight  Age 

Choice well  fatted 120-160  lbs 4-  8  weeks 

Good fat 110-200  lbs 4-10  weeks 

Medium medium  fat 100-240  lbs 3-12  weeks 

Common thin 80-450  lbs wide  range 

As  shown  above,  the  choice  grade  includes  only  handy-weight 
calves  in  high  condition.  The  good  grade  includes  handy  weights  and 
the  best  and  lightest  medium  weights.  The  medium  grade  includes 
all  except  heavy  weights.  The  common  grade  includes  all  weights. 
Lack  of  either  high  condition  or  desired  weight  consigns  the  calf  to 
the  lower  grades. 

The  largest  run  of  veal  calves  occurs  in  the  late  spring,  reaching 
its  peak  in  May.  The  veal  calves  annually  slaughtered  in  the  United 
States  are  about  one-half  as  many  as  the  cattle  slaughtered  for  beef, 
but  their  total  dressed  weight  is  only  about  one-tenth  of  the  dressed 
weight  of  the  cattle.  A  much  larger  percentage  of  veal  calves  than  of 
cattle  is  slaughtered  on  farms  and  in  small  establishments  not  under 
federal  inspection. 

Stockers  and  Feeders 

Stockers  and  feeders  include  calves,  yearlings,  two-year-olds,  and 
older  cattle.  This  class  includes  steers,  heifers,  cows,  and  bulls.  There 
is  no  sharp  line  of  distinction  between  stockers  and  feeders;  the  same 
kind  of  cattle  may  sell  on  the  same  day  for  both  stock  and  feeding 
purposes.  In  a  general  way,  however,  the  difference  between  a  stocker 
and  a  feeder  is  that  the  stocker  is  usually  a  younger,  lighter,  thinner, 
and  lower  priced  animal,  commonly  used  for  wintering  on  corn  stalks 
and  other  roughage,  or  for  spring,  summer,  and  fall  grazing,  with  little 
or  no  grain.  After  stockers  have  acquired  more  condition  and  weight 
in  this  manner,  they  may  be  returned  to  market  as  grass  cattle  or 
they  may  be  kept  and  fattened  on  a  grain  ration  before  returning  them. 
In  the  latter  case  they  first  become  feeders  and  finally  fat  cattle  before 
they  are  again  sold. 


134  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

A  feeder  is  usually  a  steer,  older,  heavier,  and  carrying  more  flesh 
than  the  stocker,  and  is  suitable  for  placing  in  the  feed-lot  immediately 
for  fattening  on  a  grain  ration.  However,  a  large  number  of  calves 
sell  as  feeders,  including  mixed  lots  of  steer  and  heifer  calves.  These 
constitute  the  only  important  exception  to  the  above  general  state- 
ments. Stocker  and  feeder  calves  commonly  weigh  from  350  to  450 
pounds.  Popular  weights  for  stocker  cattle  range  from  450  to  700 
pounds,  and  the  most  popular  range  in  weight  of  feeder  steers  is  800 
to  1,000  pounds.  Feeders  of  these  weights  are  usually  long  yearlings 
or  two-year-olds.  At  times  fleshy  feeders  weighing  1,100  to  1,200 
pounds  are  in  strong  demand  for  a  short  feed. 


Fig.  41. — Choice  feeder  steer. 

Feeder  steers. — On  the  market  the  term  "stocker"  or  "feeder" 
used  without  a  qualifying  word  is  always  understood  to  mean  a  steer. 
The  grades  of  feeder  steers  are  fancy  selected,  choice,  good,  medium, 
and  common. 

Fancy  selected  feeders. — Very  few  of  the  fancy  grade  reach  the 
market,  as  breeders  fortunate  enough  to  own  thin  steers  of  such  quality 
usually  hold  them  until  finished  as  prime  steers,  or  sell  them  direct  to 
cattle  feeders  at  good  strong  prices.  Fancy  selected  feeders  must  be 
uniform  in  size,  type,  and  color,  and  show  unmistakable  signs  of  good 
breeding.  (See  Fig,  27,  page  109.)  They  are  practically  above  criti- 
cism, possessing  in  a  high  degree  the  form,  quality,  constitution,  and 
fleshing  of  an  ideal  feeder  as  described  in  Chapter  VII. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  135 

Choice  feeders. — Steers  of  this  grade  will,  under  proper  manage- 
ment, develop  into  choice  and  prime  beef  steers.  They  possess  the 
ability  to  make  economical  gains  in  flesh.  Choice  feeders  compared 
to  fancy  selected  feeders  are  somewhat  deficient  in  some  one  point, 
such  as  form,  quality,  or  uniformity,  or  they  are  slightly  deficient  in 
several  points.  They  must  show  evidence  of  good  breeding,  and  every- 
thing considered  they  are  excellent  cattle  for  feeding  purposes.  Most 
of  the  best  feeder  steers  on  the  market  grade  as  "choice"  rather  than 
as  "fancy  selected." 

Good  feeders. — These  possess  in  less  degree  the  qualities  which 
characterize  choice  and  fancy  selected  feeders.  They  are  not  so  thrifty, 
have  not  as  good  conformations,  and  carry  a  smaller  percentage  of 


Fig.  42. — Good  feeder  steer. 

good  breeding.  They  are  easily  criticized,  for  they  are  too  long  of  leg, 
too  narrow  across  the  back,  and  either  too  fine  or  too  heavy  in  bone. 
Good  feeders  will  finish  into  good  beef  steers,  or  perhaps  may  make  the 
choice  grade. 

Medium  feeders. — These  are  very  much  lacking  in  form,  quality, 
and  constitution,  and  very  seldom  grade  higher  than  medium  when 
fattened.  Many  of  them  are  off-colored  and  spotted,  indicating  dairy 
or  inferior  breeding. 

Common  feeders. — These  are  common  in  quality,  conformation, 
and  condition.     Dairy-type  steers  classify  here. 

Yearling  stockers. — Many  thin,  light-weight  yearling  steers  are 
available  as  stockers  and  are  quoted  in  market  reports  as  "yearling 
stockers."     They  are  such  cattle  as  will,  after  a  summer  on  grass,  or 


136  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

a  good  wintering,  be  suitable  for  grain  feeding.  The  grades  are  fancy- 
selected,  choice,  good,  medium,  and  common.  These  grades  are  very- 
similar  to  the  grades  of  feeders  which  have  been  described. 

Stocker  and  feeder  calves. — During  the  fall  months  many  western 
calves,  both  steers  and  heifers,  are  sold  at  weaning  time  for  stocking 
and  feeding  purposes.  With  increased  attention  to  baby  beef  produc- 
tion, the  well-bred  feeder  calf  has  become  popular.  Uniformity  and 
good  breeding  are  especially  important  in  calves  intended  for  the  feed- 
lot.  Lack  of  uniformity  among  young  animals  becomes  magnified  as 
they  develop,  and  baby  beef  production  demands  good  breeding  as  a 
guarantee  of  early  maturity,  or  finish  at  a  young  age.  Most  calves 
started  on  feed  in  the  fall  and  early  winter  are  finished  for  the  June 


Fig.  43. — Medium  feeder  steer. 

market  following  the  spring  run  of  heavy  beef  steers.     Some  are  con- 
tinued on  feed  through  the  summer  and  marketed  in  September. 

The  grades  of  stocker  and  feeder  calves  are  fancy  selected,  choice, 
good,  medium,  and  common.  Only  the  better  grades  are  commonly 
sold  as  feeders,  the  lower  grades  being  used  as  stockers.  Steer  calves 
are  preferred,  especially  for  feeding.  The  grade  depends  on  the  form, 
quality,  constitution,  breeding,  and  uniformity,  corresponding  to  like 
grades  of  feeder  steers.  Many  choice  and  fancy  western  calves  are 
now  sold  direct  from  the  range  to  corn-belt  feeders.  Auction  sales  at 
western  points  and  in  the  corn  belt,  and  sales  on  mail  order  and  at 
private  treaty  on  the  range  now  take  a  large  number  of  the  best  calves, 
such  as  the  S.  M.  S.  brand  and  Highland  Hereford  Association,  both 
of  Texas,  and  others  of  similar  quality. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  137 

Stock  heifers. — Yearling  and  older  heifers  are  taken  out  for 
stocking  and  for  breeding  purposes.  Those  taken  from  the  markets 
for  use  in  breeding  herds  must  pass  the  tuberculin  test.  Some  are  sold 
for  grain  feeding.  The  grades  are  choice,  good,  medium,  and  common. 
These  are  similar  to  the  corresponding  grades  of  feeder  steers. 

Stock  cows. — The  foregoing  remarks  relative  to  stock  heifers 
apply  also  to  stock  cows,  except  that  cows  are  seldom  taken  out  for 
grain  feeding.    The  grades  are  choice,  good,  medium,  and  common. 

Feeder  bulls. — These  are  young  bulls  of  beef  type.  They  are 
usually  stagged  (castrated)  and  are  frequently  mixed  in  with  loads  of 
steers  when  fat.  Many  of  them  pass  as  steers  when  returned  to  market ; 
others  plainly  show  coarseness  of  head,  neck,  and  forequarters  due  to 


Fig,  44. — Common  feeder  steer. 

late  castration  and  are  sold  as  stags.  The  supply  and  demand  are 
limited.  The  grades  of  feeder  bulls  are  choice,  good,  medium,  and 
common. 

Milkers  and  Springers  \ 

These  are  cows  and  heifers  of  dairy  type  and  breeding  which  are 
sorted  out  of  the  run  of  cattle  at  the  market  and  sold  to  dairymen. 
They  are  sold  by  the  head,  whereas  all  other  classes  of  cattle  are  sold 
by  the  hundredweight.  The  only  difference  between  a  milker  and  a 
springer  is  that  the  former  is  in  milk  while  the  latter  is  heavy  in  calf  and 
will  freshen  soon.  The  springer  gives  evidence  in  her  type,  color,  and 
mammary  development  that  she  will  be  a  useful  milk  cow  after  calving. 


138 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


The  value  of  this  class  of  cattle  depends  partly  on  their  age,  and  this 
is  determined  from  the  teeth. 

How  are  cattle  classed  and  graded? — Persons  who  are  not  familiar 
with  the  large  markets  sometimes  ask  by  what  method  the  thousands 
of  cattle  arriving  daily  at  the  yards  are  divided  into  the  various  classes 
and  grades.  To  reply  that  cattle  are  classified  according  to  the  use 
made  of  them,  while  true,  is  not  a  satisfactory  answer,  for  another 
question  then  arises  as  to  who  or  what  decides  how  they  shall  be  used. 
It  may  be  said  that  the  class  and  grade  of  any  particular  animal  or 
carload  of  animals  on  the  market  will  be  finally  determined  by  the 
competition  on  that  day's  market  and  by  the  price  paid;  in  other 


5 "».-.- ^A 


Fig.  45.— Stockers. 

words,  supply  and  demand  largely  determine  the  limits  of  each  class. 
For  example,  certain  steers  received  at  the  market  are  of  a  type  and 
carry  a  degree  of  fleshing  which  place  them  at  about  the  dividing  line 
between  stockers  and  feeders  on  the  one  hand  and  beef  steers  on  the 
other.  The  class  these  steers  will  make  will  depend  on  who  will  bid 
the  highest  for  them.  If  there  is  a  big  run  of  feeders  that  day  and  not 
many  beef  steers,  the  fat  cattle  buyers  will  probably  bid  higher  for 
them  than  anyone  else,  and  so  they  go  as  beef  steers.  If  the  fat  steer 
market  is  dull  and  the  feeder  market  active,  they  will  in  all  probability 
be  sold  as  feeders. 

There  is  the  same  indefinite  line  of  division  between  the  poorest 
grade  of  butcher  cows  and  the  best  grade  of  cutters.  The  former 
shade  off  by  degrees  into  the  latter.     Cows  may  sell  one  day  as  butcher 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  139 

cows  that  would  sell  the  next  day  as  cutters,  depending  on  the  fluctua- 
tions in  supply  and  demand.  It  is  again  impossible  to  fix  absolutely 
the  line  of  division  between  cutters  and  canners.  One  merges  with 
the  other.  Likewise  stockers  and  feeders  cannot  be  sharply  separated. 
Butcher  bulls  and  bologna  bulls  furnish  still  another  example.  It  is 
possible  than  an  animal  might  be  almost  equally  eligible  to  three  classes. 
For  instance,  a  heifer  of  a  certain  tj^e  and  degree  of  flesh  might  at 
some  seasons  of  the  year,  class  among  the  poorest  butcher  heifers,  the 
best  cutters,  or  as  a  stock  heifer,  with  the  chances  of  each  about  even 
on  an  average  market.  Such  a  case  is  not  decided  until  the  animal  is 
sold.  If  a  buyer  of  butcher  stuff  bids  the  most,  she  will  be  used  that 
way.  If  the  cutter  buyer  for  the  packer  gets  her,  she  is  a  cutter.  If 
she  is  bought  by  a  commission  firm  for  a  farmer,  she  is  a  stock  heifer. 
She  will  sell  to  the  highest  bidder  on  that  day's  market.  Thus  we  see 
that  there  is  considerable  overlapping  of  classes,  and  that  some  cattle 
cannot  be  definitely  classified  until  they  enter  into  competition  on  the 
market  and  are  sold. 

The  market  classes  and  grades  of  live  stock  are  not  official  or 
standardized  as  are  the  classes  and  grades  of  grain.  Grain  is  commonly 
bought  on  grade  without  inspection  by  the  buyer,  but  the  grading  of 
live  stock  has  not  been  perfected  to  this  extent.  Live  stock  is  bought 
and  sold  at  the  markets  in  the  presence  of  the  buyer  and  seller,  or 
their  agents.  So  many  factors  determine  the  value  of  an  animal  and 
these  factors  vary  so  widely  that  an  exact,  standardized  classing  and 
grading  of  live  stock  does  not  seem  possible.  Nevertheless,  the  classifi- 
cations of  live  stock  which  have  grown  up  with  the  markets  serve  a 
useful  purpose.  They  enable  buyer,  seller,  and  market  reporter  to 
describe  particular  lots  of  animals  in  few  words  and  with  considerable 
accuracy.  They  are  valuable  in  quoting  prices  and  in  reporting  the 
market.  Furthermore,  a  knowledge  of  the  classes  and  grades  enables 
the  live-stock  producer  to  interpret  market  reports  and  to  gain  a  fairly 
accurate  knowledge  of  market  values  and  their  fluctuations  from  day 
to  day. 

Lack  of  uniformity  in  classing  and  grading. — The  men  engaged  in 
buying  and  selling  on  any  market  diff'er  somewhat  in  their  opinions  as 
to  the  exact  requirements  of  the  various  classes,  and  they  differ  to  a 
considerable  degree  concerning  the  requirements  of  the  various  grades 
in  each  class.  They  usually  agree  very  closely  on  the  price,  yet  one 
prominent  buyer  may  call  a  certain  fat  steer  a  typical  "choice"  steer, 
and  another  equally  well-qualified  buyer  may  call  him  a  typical  "good" 
steer.  This  difference  of  opinion  is  largely  explained  by  the  fact  that 
they  are  accustomed  to  express  values  in  terms  of  dollars  and  cents 
rather  than  in  the  grade  names  used  in  reporting  the  markets  in  the 


140  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

newspapers.  There  is  no  close  agreement  on  the  exact  application  of 
these  terms.  Even  the  reporters  for  the  papers  are  not  themselves 
agreed  on  the  application  of  many  terms  they  use. 

Between  one  market  and  another  there  are  still  other  differences 
in  the  application  of  terms.  The  best  beef  steers  of  a  certain  market 
will  be  quoted  as  prime  steers  in  the  daily  reports  of  that  market  as 
given  in  the  newspapers,  yet  these  same  steers  on  some  other  large 
market  where  a  better  class  of  cattle  is  regularly  received  would  never 
be  called  better  than  choice  steers.  Admittedly  there  is  opportunity 
for,  and  need  of,  greater  uniformity  in  the  use  and  meaning  of  market 
terms,  yet  the  market  classifications  as  they  now  exist  at  various 
markets,  with  all  their  inaccuracies  and  lack  of  uniformity,  serve  a 
valuable  purpose.  They  furnish  at  least  some  sort  of  a  "handle"  to 
the  market.  Without  them  it  would  be  next  to  impossible  to  report 
the  markets  to  country  stock  buyers,  stockmen,  and  farmers. 

Cattle  Prices  at  Chicago 

Chicago  prices  during  1922. — As  indicating  the  comparative 
market  values  of  the  various  market  classes,  the  following  prices  from 
the  Chicago  market  covering  the  year  1922  may  be  noted  i^ 

Class  Range  in  price  Average  prict 

Beef  steers $5.00-14.00  $9.00 

Butcher  cows  and  heifers 3.00-12.00  5.70 

Bulls,  all  classes 2.50-  8.50 

Bologna  bulls 3.25-  5.35  4.45 

Cutter  and  canner  cows 1.00-  4.50  3.15 

Veal  calves 2.50-14.00  9.70 

Stockers  and  feeders 3.50-  8.50  6.65 

Grass  western  steers,  all  classes 3.00-10.25  6.60 

Grass  western  cows  and  heifers,  all  classes 2.00-  8.25  .... 

Market  values  of  the  various  classes. — In  determining  the  com- 
parative market  values  of  the  various  market  classes,  averages  for  one 
year  are  not  sufficient  as  a  basis  for  comparison.  The  following  table  ^ 
gives  the  yearly  average  prices  at  Chicago  for  the  several  market 
classes  from  1913  to  1922,  and  also  the  averages  for  the  entire  ten-year 
period : 


Compiled  from  Drovers  Journal  Year  Book  of  Figures  for  1922. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


141 


Average 

pricei 

for  cattle  and  calves  at  Chicago  for  ten 

years 

Beef  Steers 

West'n    Range 

li 

11 

II 

S 
> 

1 

•a 

Year 

g 

§ 

u 

o 

1 

3| 

CO 

i- 

1 

•a 
1^ 

1 

1913 
1914 

1915 
1916 
1917 
1918 
1919 
1920 
1921 
1922 

$8.00 

8.10 

7.70 

8.45 

10.50 

13.25 

13.40 

11.55 

7.20 

8.00 

$8.10 

8.30 

8.05 

8.85 

11.50 

14.40 

14.50 

12.50 

7.65 

8.40 

$8.30 

8.70 

8.55 

9.40 

12.30 

15.00 

15.80 

13.85 

8.20 

9.00 

$8.65 

8.95 

8.75 

10.25 

13.05 

15.90 

16.90 

14.80 

8.60 

9.50 

$8.85 

9.75 

9.25 

10.75 

13.75 

16.50 

17.60 

15.80 

8.90 

10.00 

$8.25 

8.65 

8.40 

9.50 

11.60 

14.65 

15.50 

13.30 

8.20 

9.00 

$7.40 

7.65 

7.75 

8.40 

10.60 

14.40 

11.25 

8.80 

6.15 

6.60 

$6.05 
6.40 
6.00 
6.25 
9.00 

10.15 

$6.10 
6.55 
6.10 
6.75 
8.25 
9.50 

10.00 
8.55 
5.40 
5.70 

$4.25 
4.60 
4.25 
4.80 
6.25 
7.25 
6.45 
5.05 
2.90 
3.15 

$10.10 

9.90 

10.15 

10.85 

13.75 

15.75 

17.05 

14.90 

9.80 

9.70 

$7.05 
7.35 
(M 
7.20 
8.40 
10.25 
10.85 
8.95 
6.45 
6.65 

lO-yr.  ave. 

9.60 

10.25 

10.90 

11.55 

12.10 

10.70 

8.90 

7.30 

4.90 

12.20 

8.05 

•  No  outlet,  due  to  outbreak  of  foot-and-mouth  disease  and  quarantine  of  the  yards. 

From  the  standpoint  of  averages,  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
price  of  a  beef  steer  bears  a  constant  relation  to  his  weight,  the  heavier 
the  steer,  the  higher  the  price  per  cwt.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
as  a  steer  becomes  older  he  fattens  more  easily;  and  in  dealing  with 
groups  of  very  large  numbers  of  beef  steers  of  different  weights,  all 
factors  determining  value  are  equalized  except  the  factor  of  fatness. 
Between  the  average  prices  of  900-pound  and  1,125-pound  beef  steers 
there  is  a  difference  of  65  cents  per  cwt.;  between  1,125-pound  and 
1,275-pound  steers  the  difference  is  also  65  cents;  between  1,275  and 
1,425  pounds  it  is  again  65  cents;  and  between  1,425  and  1,600  pounds 
it  is  55  cents.  The  sum  of  all  these  differences  is  $2.50,  which  is  the 
difference  between  the  average  prices  of  the  lightest  and  heaviest 
groups  of  beef  steers.  All  beef  steers  together  sell  $3.40  higher  than 
butcher  cows  and  heifers.  Between  stockers  and  feeders  and  beef 
steers  there  exists  a  margin  of  $2.65  based  on  the  Chicago  figures. 
Butcher  stock  sells  $2.40  higher  than  cutters  and  canners.  Veal  calves 
bring  the  highest  price  of  any  class,  exceeding  the  price  of  beef  steers 
by  $1.50. 

Highest  and  lowest  monthly  prices. — It  is  true  of  Chicago  and  of 
the  other  large  markets  that  beef  steers  are  usually  highest  in  price 
in  late  August  or  early  September.  They  are  usually  lowest  about 
the  last  of  January  or  first  of  February. 

Highest  prices  for  stockers  and  feeders  are  made  in  April  and  May, 
which  mark  the  opening  of  the  pasture  season.  Lowest  prices  occur 
in  November  and  December,  December  being  the  lowest. 

Butcher  cows  and  heifers  sell  highest  in  May,  and  lowest  in 
November  and  December. 


142 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


Cutter  and  canner  prices  exhibit  no  marked  high  and  low  spots, 
and  the  high  points  in  prices  are  the  most  irregular  in  occurrence  of 
any  class  of  cattle. 

Largest  receipts  of  veal  calves  arrive  in  April  and  May.  Highest 
prices  are  made  in  SeptemB^r  and  lowest  prices  in  April.  One  reason 
for  the  low  price  in  April  is  that  a  large  majority  of  spring  calves  are 
too  small  to  yield  high-class  veal.  Fewest  light-weight  calves  are 
received  in  September  and  October. 

Two  kinds  of  fluctuations  are  evident  in  live-stock  prices.  One 
may  be  termed  the  "general  trend."  This  affects  prices  over  a  con- 
siderable period  of  time  and  is  usually  associated  with  changes  in  prices 


Seasonal     Influence    on    Receipts    and    Prices   of   Cattle  and   Beef 

Monthly  1917-1920                                                          ^     1 

1 

1 

1 

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42  00 
MOO 
18  00 
ItOO 

10  00 

e.oo 

AGO 
200 

1800 

laoo 
eoo 

*oo 

aoo 

0 

1 

-  izoo 
woo 

leoo 

IfcOO 
12  00 

1000 

J      BOO 

boo 

^ 

\ 

BEEr 

/■ 

\, 

1 

/s 

y 

s 

/ 

s 

1 

s 

1 

^ 

s 

/ 

■^ 

/ 

r 

s 

-s 

/■ 

-\ 

V 

' 

^ 

/ 

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RtCEIPTS    AT  SEVEN  PRINCIPAL  MABKETJ 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1  1  1  M  M  1  1  1 1  1    III 

1 

M  1  M  1 1 1 1 1 II 1  M  1 II    III 

1  1 

1917                1                I9I8                 1                 1919                1            --I920 

Note 

the 
th8 

To  compnro  Beef  Prices. «»  leariy  <>s  possible,  wi^h  the    Prices   o<   Live    Cflttle.  from  y.h.ch   th«    6eef  otme, 
Prices   of   Dressed  Beef   ore  given  for  first  week  of   month  »howr>  the   l.lv«    Prices    src  g,ver^  for 

Fig.  46. — Effect  of  the  supply  of  cattle  upon  live  prices  and  beef  prices,  as 
shown  by  receipts  at  seven  leading  markets,  prices  paid  for  cattle  by  Swift  and 
Company  on  its  entire  cattle  purchases  in  the  United  States,  and  prices  received  by 
Swift  and  Company  for  dressed  beef.  Note  that  prices  for  both  cattle  and  beef  are 
highest  in  seasons  of  lightest  receipts,  and  lowest  when  there  is  the  largest  supply. 

of  other  commodities.  The  other  consists  of  daily,  weekly,  monthly, 
and  seasonal  fluctuations,  due  largely  to  variations  in  supply  and  not 
associated  with  changes  in  prices  of  other  commodities.  These  two 
classes  of  fluctuations  are  both  well  illustrated  in  the  following  table  ^ 
giving  the  monthly  and  yearly  average  prices  of  beef  steers  at  Chicago 
for  ten  years.  The  general  trend  of  prices  is  shown  by  the  yearly 
averages  at  the  bottom  of  the  table.  The  monthly  or  seasonal  fluctua- 
1  Compiled  from  Drovers  Journal  Year  Books  of  Figures. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


143 


tions  are  shown  by  the  ten-year  averages  of  monthly  prices  in  the  last 
column  at  the  right: 


Monthly  and  yearly  average  prices  for  beef  steers  at  Chicago  for  ten 

years 

Month 

1922 

1921 

1920 

1919 

1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

1914 

1913 

Ten-year 
average 

($7.05) 

$8.70 

$13.95 

$15.80 

$12.10 

($10.15)  ($8.35) 

$8.05 

$8.45 

($7.80) 

$10.05 

7.45 

8.20 

13.05 

15.95 

(12.00) 

10.50 

(8.35) 

(7.50) 

(8.30) 

8.25 

(9.95) 

March 

8.00 

9.05 

13.10 

16.05 

12.60 

11.25 

8.75 

7.65 

8.35 

8.30 

10.30 

^.v-::::: 

7.95 

8.15 

12.30 

15.85 

14.70 

11.75 

9.10 

7.70 

8.50 

8.15 

10.40 

.     8.30 

8.25 

12.25 

15.00 

15.40 

11.90 

9.50 

8.35 

8.40 

8.00 

10.55 

8.95 

8.00 

14.95 

(13.55) 

15.85 

12.15 

9.85 

8.80 

8.60 

8.15 

10.90 

July 

9.50 

8.10 

15.00 

15.60 

16.05 

12.35 

9.25 

9.20 

8.80 

8.25 

11.20 

August 

9.65 

8.50 

14.85 

16.45 

15.75 

12.70 

9.45 

9.05 

9.10 

8.30 

11.40 

10.20 

8.00 

15.05 

15.50 

16.00 

13.10 

9.40 

8.95 

9.35 

8.50 

11.40 

October 

10.65 

8.10 

14.20 

16.15 

14.80 

11.70 

9.75 

8.80 

9.05 

8.40 

11.15 

November .... 

9.85 

7.40 

12.00 

15.10 

15.05 

11.10 

10.15 

8.70 

8.60 

8.25 

10.60 

December 

9.20 

(7.00) 

(10.10) 

14.35 

14.90 

11.40 

10.00 

8.35 

8.35 

8.20 

10.20 

Yearly  averaEe 

9.00 

8.20 

13.30 

15.50 

14.65 

11.60 

9.50 

8.40 

8.65 

8.25 

10.70 

The  table  shows  that  yearly  average  prices  for  beef  steers  steadily 
and  rapidly  increased  from  1915  to  1919,  and  then  declined  to  the 
amount  of  $7.30  during  1920  and  1921.  This  was  due  to  inflation  of 
prices  during  the  World  War  and  to  severe  depression  or  reaction 
immediately  following  the  war. 


PRICE   OF  STEERS   BY   GRA 

WEEKLY   AVERAGE 

DES   AT  CHICAGO 

5.  1921 

DOLLARS       j^M       pg-g     ^AR      APR       MAY   JUNE    J 
PER  100  LBS 

JLY       AUG     SEP      OCT       NOV     DEC 

" 

IZ    -<^ 

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rr   k    ,■■■■■ -J-s^ 

e  1 J  _1 IF:: 

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± I 

Fig.  47. — Spread  in  price  of  beef  steers. 

Highest  monthly  prices  are  printed  in  bold-face  type.  These  are 
scattered  widely,  though  they  occur  most  frequently  in  July,  August, 
and  September.  The  last  column  at  the  right  shows  that  these  three 
months  average  highest  for  the  ten  years,  with  August  and  September 
highest  of  all. 


144  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Lowest  monthly  prices  are  enclosed  in  parenthesis.  In  all  but 
one  year  these  occurred  in  December,  January,  and  February,  and  the 
column  at  the  right  shows  that  these  three  months  average  lowest, 
with  February  lowest  of  all.  There  is  a  steady  rise  in  price  from 
February  to  August,  followed  by  a  rapid  decline  from  September  to 
December.  Between  February  and  August  the  difference  in  price  is 
$L45. 

The  spread  in  price  of  beef  steers. — As  a  general  rule,  the  price 
of  any  particular  class  or  grade  of  cattle  is  highest  when  the  supply  is 
lowest,  and  vice  versa.  In  the  spring  a  large  number  of  good, 
choice,  and  prime  steers  are  received  from  corn-belt  feed-lots,  and  the 
movement  of  grass-fattened  steers  is  at  low  ebb.  This  tends  to  lower 
the  price  of  the  better  grades  of  beef  steers  and  to  increase  the  price 
of  the  medium  and  common  grades,  so  that  there  is  relatively  little 
spread  (difference)  in  the  price  of  all  beef  steers  during  spring  months.  ^ 
In  the  fall,  conditions  are  reversed  and  the  spread  in  price  is  very  much 
greater.  In  1921  choice  and  prime  steers  sold  higher  in  fall  than  in 
spring,  while  medium  and  common  steers  sold  considerably  lower  in 
fall  than  in  spring.  The  weekly  price  averages  showed  a  spring  spread 
of  a  little  less  than  $2,  and  a  fall  spread  of  about  $6,  or  three  times  as 
much.  The  general  trend  of  the  market  during  that  year  was  down- 
ward.    These  facts  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  47. 


1  Sheets,  Baker,  Gibbons,  Stine,  and  Wilcox:  Our  Beef  Supply,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  305. 


CHAPTER  IX 

BREEDING  FOR  THE  MARKET 

The  following  figures  reported  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture show  the  rank  of  the  leading  cattle  countries  and  the  total  number 
of  cattle  (beef  and  dairy  cattle)  in  each: 

Number  of  cattle  in  leading  countries 

Country  Year  Total   cattle 

1.  India 1920 132,537,000 

2.  United  States. . . .  1923 66,352,000 

3.  Russia 1921 38,132,000 

4.  Brazil 1918 37,500,000  > 

5.  Argentina 1920 27,721,000 

6.  Germany 1921 16,840,000 

7.  Siberia 1915 14,772,000 

8.  Australia 1920 13,373,000 

9.  France 1920 12,782,000 

10.  Great  Britain. . .  .1921 11,893,000 

11.  Canada 1921 10,206,000 

12.  Poland 1921 7,861,000 

13.  Uruguay 1916 7,803,000 

World  total 492,072,000  = 

» Unofficial. 

«U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  680.     Includes  435,000  designated  as  "cattle  and  buffaloes.' 

The  United  States  has  about  one-seventh  of  the  world's  cattle. 
The  1920  census  reported  35  million  beef  cattle  and  32  million  dairy 
cattle  in  the  United  States.  On  January  1,  1923,  the  number  of  milk 
cows  on  farms  in  the  United  States,  as  estimated  by  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  was  24,429,000  and  the  remaining  41,923,000 
were  reported  as  "other  cattle."  The  average  value  of  milk  cows  was 
estimated  to  be  $50.83  and  of  "other  cattle,"  $25.67.  Cattle  other 
than  milk  cows  are  principally  beef  cattle. 

Cattle  and  population. — The  population  of  the  United  States  has 
shown  a  steady  and  regular  increase  since  1850,  and  the  increase  in 
number  of  cattle  kept  pace  with  it  until  about  1895.  Since  that  time 
the  number  of  both  beef  and  dairy  cattle  has  remained  fairly  constant, 
while  population  has  continued  to  increase  steadily.  Therefore  the 
number  of  cattle  to  each  inhabitant  has  declined  somewhat  since  1895. 
However,  the  use  of  better  and  better  animals  for  breeding  purposes 
has  improved  the  usefulness  of  all  of  our  farm  animals;  hence  decline 
in  number  of  cattle  per  capita  has  been  partially  met  by  improvement 
in  quality. 

The  accompanying  table  ^  shows  the  annual  slaughter  and  con- 

iJohn  Roberts:  Meat  Production,  Consumption,  and  Foreign  Trade  in  United 
States,  1907-1922,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Mimeographed  Report. 

145 


146 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


sumption  of  beef  and  veal.  The  annual  slaughter  is  representative  of 
annual  production.  Beef  production  shows  a  slight  decrease  and  veal 
production  shows  a  considerable  increase  from  1907  to  1922  inclusive. 
Failure  of  our  beef  production  to  keep  pace  with  our  growing  popula- 
tion is  reflected  in  the  annual  per  capita  consumption  of  beef  which 
declined  from  79.7  pounds  in  1907  to  61.4  pounds  in  1922.  Veal  con- 
sumption per  capita  shows  a  slight  increase.  It  will  be  noted  that  we 
exported  considerable  beef  during  the  World  War. 

Estimated  annual  production  and  consumption  of  dressed  beef  and  veal  in  the  United  States 


Total   slaughter 

Gain  or  loss 

through   exports 

and  imports 

Consumption 

Calendar 
year 

Total 

Per  capita 

Beef 

Veal 

Beef 

Veal 

Beef 

Veal 

Beef 

Veal 

1907 

1910 

Million 
pounds 

7,319 
6,733 
5,913 
5,639 
5,816 
6,118 
6,686 
7,320 
6,283 
6,463 
6,194 
6,747 

Million 
pounds 

626 

687 
488 
433 
428 
536 
662 
765 
804 
838 
748 
793 

Million 
pounds 

-352 
-110 

-  11 
+  165 
-257 
-256 
-334 
-581 
-229 
-105 
-^22 

-  5 

Million 
pounds 

+  1 
+  1 
+  1 
+  1 
+  5 
+8 
+4 
+  5 

Million 
pounds 

6,967 

6,623 

5,902 

5,804 

5,559 

5,862 

6,352 

6,753 ' 

6,090' 

6,514 > 

6,230' 

6,711' 

Million 
pounds 

626 
687 
488 
438 
429 
537 
663 
766 
809 
846 
752 
798 

Pounds 

79.7 
71.8 
60.8 
59.3 
56.0 
58.2 
62.2 
65.2 
58.0 
61.2 
57.8 
61.4 

Pounds 

7.1 
7.4 

1913 

5.0 

1914 

4.4 

1915 

4.3 

1916 

5.3 

1917. .           

6.5 

1918        

7.4 

1919               

7.7 

1920 

7.9 

1921 

7.0 

1922 

7.3 

1  Includes  differences  between  quantities  in  storage  at  beginning  and  end  of  year. 


The  distribution  of  beef  cattle  in  the  United  States  is  shown  by 
the  numbers  of  cattle  other  than  milk  cows  in  the  leading  states  and 
the  numbers  of  such  cattle  in  the  various  geographical  divisions:  ^ 

Leading  states  in  numbers  of  "other  cattle"  on  farms,  January  1,  1923 

state  Number 

1.  Texas 5,041,000 

2.  Iowa 3,479,000 

3.  Nebraska 2,700,000 

4.  Kansas 2,487,000 

5.  Missouri 2,003,000 


Average 
value 

State 

Number 

Average 
value 

$18.60 
35.20 
31.80 
27.20 
28.70 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

Illinois 

South  Dakota 
California. . .  . 
Oklahoma..  . . 
Colorado 

.1,561,000 
1,521,000 
.1,435,000 
.1,364,000 
.1,361,000 

$34.00 

29.40 
34.70 
16.80 
25.40 

Distribution  of  "other  cattle"  on  farms  by  geographical  divisions,  January  1,  1923 

Division  Number 

North  Atlantic 1,222,000 

South  Atlantic 2,872,000 

North  Central,  East  of  Mississippi  River 4,699,000 

North  Central,  West  of  Mississippi  River 14,293,000 

South  Central 9,851,000 

Far  Western 8,986,000 


Total  United  States 

1  Estimates  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


.41,923,000 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


147 


Beef  cattle  breeding  in  the  United  States  centers  largely  in  two 
regions:  (1)  the  western  portion  of  the  corn  belt,  and  (2)  the  great 
plains  region  of  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Colorado.  The  last  census 
showed  that  in  1920  Texas  had  more  than  two  and  one-half  times  as 
many  beef  cows  and  heifers  of  breeding  age  as  her  nearest  competitor, 
Iowa.  Texas  had  over  17  per  cent  of  all  the  beef  cows  and  heifers  of 
breeding  age  in  the  United  States.  Texas  and  the  Southwest  annually 
send  large  numbers  of  calves  and  young  cattle  to  the  corn  belt  and  to 
the  northern  range  states  for  stocking  and  feeding  purposes.  The 
movement  of  cattle  from  the  Southwest  is  northerly  and  easterly. 
Other  western  states  contribute  to  the  annual  crop,  and  the  central 


Fig.  48.— Distribution  of  beef  cattle  in  the  United  States. 


states  produce  many  of  their  own  beef  cattle,  but  the  Southwest  is  the 
great  supply  source  of  calves  and  young  stock  to  be  grown  and  finished 
in  other  regions.  As  stated  by  James  E.  Poole,  market  editor  of  the 
Breeder's  Gazette,  "Texas  and  other  sections  of  the  great  southwestern 
breeding  ground  have  replenished  northern  pastures  year  after  year 
from  a  seemingly  inexhaustible  supply.  Owing  to  its  climatic  and 
physical  character,  it  is  probable  that  for  all  time  to  come  this  western 
breeding  ground  will  continue  to  replenish  the  feed-lots  and  pastures 
of  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  basins."  Texas  and  the  southern 
range  are  best  adapted  to  economical  calf  production,  the  northern 
range  to  maturing  and  grass  fattening,  and  the  corn  belt  to  grain 
finishing. 


148  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

The  accompanying  table  ^  presents  some  interesting  figures  based 
on  the  last  census  covering  the  14  states  which  had  the  most  beef  cows 
and  heifers  of  breeding  age  on  January  1,  1920.  Seven  of  these  states 
are  western  and  seven  are  central.  Note  the  right-hand  column  of 
figures  giving  the  ratio  between  beef  calves  and  beef  cows  in  these 
states  on  January  1.  Note  especially  the  marked  difference  between 
the  ratios  for  Texas  and  Iowa,  the  two  leading  states  in  beef  cattle 
breeding. 

Number  of  beef  calves  compared  to  number  of  beef  cows  and  heifers,  January  1,  1920 
(Census  figures) 

Number  of  beef  Number  of  Number  cf 

cows  and  heifers  beef  calves  calves  per  hundred 

State  two  years  old  January  1  cows  and  h<  ifers 

and  over  Janusry  1 

1.  Texas* 2,181,359  903,084  41 

2.  Iowa 848,914  844,656  100 

3.  Nebraska 828,853  682,265  82 

4.  Kansas 672,023  542,216  81 

5.  New  Mexico* 664,329  249,545  38 

6.  South  Dakota 573,589  467,986  82 

7.  Missouri 533,675  445,199  83 

8.  Colorado 529,186  325,033  61 

9.  Okl  ihoma 490,689  309,025  63 

10.  California 441,059  242,315  55 

11.  Arizona* 429,480  153,137  36 

12.  Montana** 384,148  275,564  72 

13.  Illinois 361,909  340,425  94 

14.  Wyoming** 299,126  206,741  69 

*T  iree  southern  range 3,275,168  1,305,766  40 

**Ta^o  northern  range 683,274  482,305  71 

Seven  western  states 4,928,687  2,355,419  48 

Seven  centr  il  states 4,309,652  3,631,772  84 

Total 9,238,339  5,987,191  65 

Total  United  States 12,624,996  8,607,938  68 

This  table  indicates  that  Texas  sells  a  large  number  of  calves 
prior  to  January  1,  and  that  Iowa  buys  a  considerable  number  of  calves. 
However,  due  allowance  should  be  made  for  the  fact  that  under  range 
conditions  fewer  calves  are  dropped  per  100  cows,  and  losses  of  calves 
from  disease,  exposure,  predatory  animals,  poison,  and  other  causes  are 
greater  than  in  the  central  states,  but  these  factors  cannot  cover  the 
wide  differences  which  occur  in  the  ratios  between  calves  and  cows  in 
many  of  the  14  states.  ^    At  the  bottom  of  the  table  appears  a  com- 

1  Compiled  from  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  pp.  248,  250. 

2 Figures  covering  the  average  calf  crops  and  average  losses  of  calves  up  to  12 
months  of  age  in  various  states  are  given  by  B  irnes  and  Jardine  in  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
Rpt.  110,  p.  27,  and  by  Cotton  and  Ward  in  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Rpt.  Ill,  pp.  41,  51. 
Applying  these  figures,  and  assuming  that  the  number  of  breeding  females  was  the 
same  in  1919  as  in  1920,  then  the  number  of  January  calves  produced  per  100  breed- 
ing females  in  Iowa  was  86,  Nebraska  78,  Kansas  81,  New  Mexico  59,  South  Dakota 
85,  Missouri  89,  Colorado  64,  California  69,  Arizona  52,  Montana  71,  Illinois  88,  and 
Wyoming  69.     Similar  figures  are  not  available  for  Texas  and  Oklahoma.     Assuming 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  149 

parison  of  the  northern  range  with  the  southern  range,  of  the  central 
states  with  the  western  states,  and  of  the  14  leading  states  with  the 
total  for  the  United  States.  The  latter  indicates  that  the  14  states 
supplied  over  275,000  calves  to  other  states  in  1919.  This  assumes 
that  conditions  are  equally  favorable  to  calf  production  in  the  14  states 
and  in  the  country  as  a  whole. 

Conditions  suitable  to  beef  cattle  breeding.^^"The  importance  of 
beef  cattle  in  the  agriculture  of  this  country  rests  chiefly  upon  their 
ability  to  convert  coarse  forage,  corn,  grass,  and  other  products  of  the 
land,  either  unfit  or  not  wanted  for  human  consumption,  into  a  valuable 
and  much  desired  food.''^  The  raising  of  beef  cattle  is  extensively 
practiced  on  cheap,  unimproved  lands,  especially  on  the  cheap  grazing 
areas  of  the  West.  Improved,  high-priced  lands  in  the  farming  areas, 
particularly  in  the  corn  belt,  produce  feed  much  more  abundantly  than 
the  cheap  grazing  areas,  including  large  quantities  of  roughage  such  as 
corn  stalks,  hay,  and  straw,  and  the  larger  part  of  this  roughage  must 
be  fed  to  cattle  if  it  is  to  be  used  at  all.  A  considerable  number  of 
eastern,  southern,  and  corn-belt  farms  include  more  or  less  rough  land 
which  may  be  used  to  best  advantage  as  pasture  for  a  beef  breeding 
herd. 

Thus  breeding  herds  of  beef  cattle  are  maintained  not  only  in  the 
Southwest  and  West,  but  also  in  the  Central  West,  and  in  the  East 
and  South.  Steer  calves  produced  in  the  West  are  frequently  kept 
there  until  they  are  three  or  four  years  old  to  mature  them  so  that 
they  will  fatten  on  grass,  because  young,  growing  animals  do  not 
fatten  on  grass  alone.  On  the  other  hand,  steer  calves  produced  in 
the  corn  belt  must  be  developed  and  finished  quickly.  On  high-priced 
land  they  cannot  be  developed  profitably  by  the  slower  method  of  the 
West.  In  other  words,  most  corn-belt  beef  calves  must  be  marketed 
as  baby  beeves. 

Selection  of  beef  cattle  for  breeding  purposes. — When  breeding 
for  beef,  the  producer  must  use  good  cattle  of  the  beef  type.     Attention 


that  conditions  are  as  favorable  for  production  of  calves  in  Texas  as  in  New  Mexico 
(they  are  probably  more  favorable),  then  Texas  sold  18  calves  per  100  cows,  New 
Mexico  21,  South  Dakota  3,  Missouri  6,  Colorado  3,  California  14,  and  Arizona  16; 
while  Iowa  purchased  14  calves  per  100  cows,  Nebraska  4,  Montana  1,  and  Illinois  6. 
This  would  mean  the  sale  of  about  400,000  calves  by  Texas,  the  purchase  of  about 
120,000  calves  by  Iowa,  and  sales  or  purchases  by  the  other  states  in  proportion 
to  the  figures  given.  The  writer  does  not  believe  the  above  figures  relative  to  corn- 
belt  calf  crops  to  be  accurate  as  applied  to  some  of  the  corn-belt  states,  being  too 
high  when  applied  to  the  state  as  a  whole,  but  in  a  broad,  general  way  they  indicate 
the  allowances  which  should  be  made  for  differences  in  numbers  of  calves  dropped 
and  for  losses  in  western  as  compared  to  central  states.  If  the  corn-belt  figures  are 
high,  the  movement  of  western  calves  into  corn-belt  states  was  larger  than  the  above 

1  Sheets,  Baker,  Gibbons,  Stine,  and  Wilcox:  Our  Beef  Supply,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  227. 


150  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

must  be  given  to  the  selection  of  both  the  cows  and  the  bulls,  and  an 
effort  must  be  made  to  breed  for  market  what  the  market  wants  and 
will  pay  for  in  amount  sufficient  to  return  a  profit.  In  some  years, 
feeders  of  cattle  find  it  more  profitable  to  buy  a  rather  low  grade  of 
cattle  for  feeding  purposes,  although  as  a  general  rule,  it  pays  best  to 
feed  high-class  cattle  that  will  sell  at  the  top  of  the  market,  or  near  the 
top,  when  finished.  Breeders  of  cattle  are  confronted  with  no  such 
problem  as  to  what  to  aim  for  in  breeding;  they  should  always  try  to 
breed  the  best.  Breeding  herds  are  not  so  easily  or  quickly  changed 
to  suit  fluctuations  in  market  demands  as  are  cattle  in  the  feeder's 
hands;  hence,  breeders  abide  by  the  general  rule  that  greatest  returns 
come  from  the  production  of  the  highest  grade  of  cattle,  and  on  high- 
priced  land  especially,  these  are  the  only  cattle  which  can  be  bred  at 
a  profit. 

When  the  object  of  the  breeder  is  to  produce  calves  to  be  fed  for 
the  market,  the  cows  in  the  herd  are  purebred  only  in  rare  instances. 
The  1920  census  reported  that  about  3  per  cent  of  the  beef  cattle  of 
the  United  States  are  purebred  and  registered  (recorded  in  the  herd 
books  of  the  breed  record  associations).  ^  Purebred  cattle  are  not  so 
numerous  as  to  permit  their  widespread  use,  and  it  is  impracticable  to 
advise  that  purebred  cows  shall  constitute  the  common  herds  of  the 
country,  nor  would  it  be  possible  to  bring  about  that  condition  for  many 
years  to  come.  By  all  means,  however,  the  cows  in  such  herds  should 
be  high  grades  of  some  one  of  the  beef  breeds. 

Ancestry  and  its  importance.^-Cattle  may  be  classified  into  the 
following  groups,  according  to  their  ancestry:  (1)  Purebreds,  (2)  cross- 
breds,  (3)  high  grades,  (4)  grades,  and  (5)  scrubs. 

A  purebred  animal  is  a  member  of  a  breed,  and  is  registered  or 
eligible  to  registry  in  the  herd  book  of  that  breed.  Second,  the  pure- 
bred animal  usually  possesses  a  distinctive  and  useful  type.  Third, 
it  is  descended  from  a  long  line  of  ancestors  specially  selected  by  the 
men  who  founded  and  developed  that  breed,  these  ancestors  being  of 
the  same  type  as  itself,  which  fact  explains  why  the  animal  may  be 
termed  a  "purebred."  Fourth,  being  backed  up  by  an  ancestry  of 
useful  animals  like  itself,  it  has  the  power  to  reproduce  this  useful  type 
in  its  offspring,  this  power  or  ability  being  called  "prepotency."  As  it 
is  a  rule  of  breeding  that  whatever  characters  an  animal  inherits  from 

1  The  percentage  of  beef  cattle  which  are  purebred  and  registered  varies  widely 
in  different  states.  According  to  the  1920  census,  the  ten  leading  states  in  numbers 
of  registered  purebred  beef  cattle,  and  the  percentage  of  beef  cattle  registered  in 
each  are:  Iowa  5,  Texas  1.9,  Missouri  4.9,  Kansas  3.9,  Nebraska  3,  Illinois  5.7,  South 
Dakota  3.2,  Minnesota  6,  Oklahoma  3.1,  and  Indiana  4.9.  States  having  the  highest 
percentages  are:  Massachusetts  11.7,  New  Hampshire  10.4,  Vermont  8.5,  Wisconsin 
7.9,  and  Maine  7.5.  The  lowest  in  percentages  are:  Florida  0.27,  Louisiana  0.63, 
Arizona  0.74,  Delaware  0.9,  and  Georgia  0.9. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


151 


its  ancestors  will  be  transmitted  to  its  offspring,  we  at  once  realize  the 
purebred's  power  for  good  when  used  as  a  breeder.  The  terms  "full 
blood"  and  "thoroughbred"  are  often  erroneously  used  in  place  of  the 
word  "purebred." 

A  crossbred  animal  is  one  whose  sire  and  dam  were  both  purebred, 
but  belonged  to  different  breeds.  A  cross  between  a  Shorthorn  bull 
and  a  Hereford  cow,  for  example,  produces  a  crossbred  calf. 

A  scrub  animal  is  one  that  bears  no  evidence  of  good  breeding — 
one  without  any  purebred  ancestors,  or,  at  most,  very  few  and  very 
distant  ones.     Its  ancestors  were  a  miscellaneous  lot,  of  all  shapes. 


Fig.  49. — Old-time  Texas  long-horn,  formerljr  a  prominent  feature  on  the 
American  cattle  markets.  Early  range  cattle  were  of  this  type.  They  had  very 
long  horns,  long  legs,  thin  flesh,  and  narrow  bodies.  Through  the  continued  use  of 
purebred  bulls  this  early  type  has  practically  disappeared. 


sizes,  colors,  and  sorts,  few  if  any  of  which  were  useful  animals.  Hence, 
scrub  animals  are  usually  of  indeterminate  type  and  little  value. 
Calves  sired  by  scrub  bulls  and  out  of  scrub  dams  will  be  as  worthless 
as  their  ancestry. 

A  grade  animal  is  one  produced  by  mating  a  scrub  female  with  a 
purebred  male.  If  this  grade  animal  is  a  female  and  is  in  turn  mated 
with  a  purebred  male  of  the  same  type  (and  preferably  of  the  same 
breed)  as  its  own  purebred  parent,  the  result  will  still  be  a  grade. 
Grade  animals  possess  from  50  to  75  per  cent  of  pure  breeding. 


152 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


A  high-grade  animal  is  one  produced  from  a  scrub  foundation  by 
three  or  more  successive  crosses  of  purebred  sires  of  the  same  type  and 
preferably  of  the  same  breed.  High  grades  possess  87.5  per  cent  or 
more  of  pure  breeding.  High-grade  beef  cows  and  heifers  approach 
purebred  beef  cows  and  heifers  in  their  ability  to  produce  high-class 
beef  calves  when  mated  to  good  purebred  beef  bulls.  Such  matings 
insure  not  only  high-class  calves  but  calves  of  uniform  tj^De  and  uni- 
form ability  which  contrast  sharply  with  the  variegated  assortment  of 
calves  produced  by  scrub  herds. 

As  stated  by  Wentworth,  Munnecke,  and  Brown,  ^  "The  success 
of  growing  cattle  for  the  market  depends  in  a  large  degree  on  the  kind 
of  calves  that  are  produced.  Unless  the  right  foundations  in  blood 
and  type  are  laid,  no  amount  of  feeding  by  the  professional  feeder  or 
skill  in  killing  and  cutting  by  the  packer  can  make  up  for  the  original 


Fig.  50. — Crossbred  beef  cattle.  These  are  representatives  of  the  noted  "blue 
grays"  so  popular  in  the  British  markets.  They  were  sired  by  a  Shorthorn  bull  and 
their  dams  were  Galloway  cows. 

deficiency.     Unless  proper  mating  is  made  at  the  start,  choice  to  prime 
steers  are  rarely,  if  ever,  produced." 

Utility  value  of  purebred  live  stock. — The  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  tabulated  reports  received  in  1921  from  525  farmers  and 
stockmen  who  had  used  purebred  sires  exclusively  for  a  number  of 
years.  These  men  owned  about  25,000  head  of  breeding  stock,  exclu- 
sive of  poultry.  All  their  sires  had  been  purebred  for  an  average  of 
nine  years.  About  30  per  cent  of  the  female  stock  was  purebred,  the  re- 
mainder being  grade,  crossbred,  and  nondescript.  Thirty-six  states  were 
represented.  Averages  of  the  replies  indicate  that  purebred  animals 
are  over  one-third  more  efficient  than  common  stock  for  utility  purposes. 
The  averages  for  each  kind  of  farm  live  stock   were   as   follows:  ^ 


1  Progressive  Beef  Cattle  Raising,  Armour  and  Company,  Chicago,  1920,  p.  22. 
2D.  S.  Burch:  Utility  Value  of  Purebred  Live  Stock,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Circ. 
235,  p.  5. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  153 

Superiority,  based  on  utility  alone,  of  purebred  over  common  live  stock 

Class  Superior   earning   power 

Per  cent 

Dairy  cattle 47.8 

Swine 38.3 

Sheep 37.8 

Horses 37.2 

Beef  cattle 36.8 

Goats 36.8 

All  classes  (weighted  average) 40.4 

When  the  reports  were  summarized  the  superiority  of  purebreds 
was,  in  the  opinion  of  their  owners,  based  on  the  following  points: 

Points  in  which  purebred  animals  surpass  common  stock 

Per  cent  of 
total  comment 

Better  conformation  and  quality 14.6 

Better  selling  price  of  animals 12.8 

Increased  production 12.1 

Stock  more  saleable 11.9 

More  product  for  the  feed 9.2 

Owners'  interest  and  pride  (results  in  better  care  and 

greater  returns) 9.2 

Uniformity  (factor  in  making  sales) 8.9 

Early  maturity 7.8 

Ease  of  fattening  and  finishing 5.7 

Better  prices  for  products 3.0 

Increased  vigor 2.7 

Docility  and  ease  of  handling 2.1 

100.0 

The  grading  process  enables  the  producer  of  beef  calves  to  develop 
a  breeding  herd  of  high  grades  that  closely  approach  or  equal  purebred 
beef  cattle  in  their  utility  value.  Beginning  with  a  herd  of  scrub  cows, 
successive  crosses  of  purebred  beef  bulls  will  result  in  the  following 
percentages  of  pure  and  scrub  breeding  in  each  generation  of  descend- 
ants: 

Results  obtained  by  continued  grading 

Percentage    of 

Percentage  of        Percentage  of         pure   breeding 

Crosses  of  purebred  sires  pure  breeding       scrub  breeding         added  by  each 

cross 

One  cross 50  50  50 

Two  crosses 75  25  25 

Three  crosses 87.5  12.5  12.5 

Four  crosses 93.75  6.25  6.25 

Five  crosses 96.875  3.125  3.125 

Six  crosses 98.4375  1.5625  1.5625 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  first  cross  gives  the  resulting  calf  crop 
a  50  per  cent  infusion  of  pure  breeding,  whereas  the  sixth  cross  gives 
the  resulting  calf  crop  less  than  2  per  cent  more  pure  breeding  than 
their  dams.  The  first  cross  usually  brings  much  greater  improvement 
into  the  herd  than  any  subsequent  cross.  It  is  much  easier  to  improve 
a  scrub  herd  than  a  good  herd.     After  a  time  the  herd  becomes  so 


154  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

nearly  purebred  that  further  improvement  by  grading  is  no  longer 
possible.  When  that  stage  is  reached  the  breeder  may  secure  further 
improvement  only  as  the  breeder  of  purebred  cattle  secures  it,  namely, 
by  careful  selection.  This  requires  not  only  ability  to  judge  beef  cattle, 
but  it  requires  also  careful  study  of  the  herd  in  order  that  the  best 
producers  may  be  selected  or  retained,  and  the  inferior  and  less  useful 
ones  eliminated.  It  is  more  difficult  to  maintain  a  high  average  of 
type  and  production  in  a  herd  than  it  is  to  develop  a  good  herd  from  a 
scrub  herd  by  grading. 

Community  and  cooperative  breeding. — Organization  of  the  stock- 
men and  farmers  of  a  community  to  use  the  same  breed  and  to  exchange 
sires  makes  possible  to  owners  of  small  herds  a  succession  of  good  sires 
at  moderate  cost.  Small  breeders  may  cooperate  in  buying  bulls,  and 
by  exchange  of  bulls  may  retain  the  most  successful  sires  in  service 
in  the  community.  Ordinarily  a  bull  cannot  be  kept  in  a  small  herd 
more  than  two  or  three  years  because  his  daughters  are  used  in  the 
herd.  Communities  which  have  a  large  number  of  good  herds  of  the 
same  breed  attract  buyers  who  desire  a  few  high-class  purebreds  or  a 
carload  of  high  grades.  In  some  instances  sales  are  made  over  a  wide 
territory.  Cooperation  along  these  lines  within  a  community  is  highly 
desirable  in  many  ways,  but  unfortunately  it  is  the  exception  in  this 
country  rather  than  the  rule.  ^- 

The  bull  is  at  least  half  of  the  herd.V^Herd  bulls  should  be  selected 
with  great  care.  It  is  often  said  that  "the  bull  is  half  the  herd,"  and 
someone  has  added  the  equally  true  statement  that  "an  inferior  bull 
is  all  of  the  herd."  The  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  estimates 
that  there  are  nearly  250,000  farms  producing  beef  cattle  which  use 
grade  and  scrub  bulls. '  In  breeding  all  kinds  of  farm  live  stock  we 
expect  the  offspring  to  be  better  than  the  dam,  and  we  rely  upon  the 
sire  to  bring  about  this  improvement.  In  breeding  beef  cattle  for  the 
market,  it  is  well  to  have  good  cows,  but  it  is  an  absolute  essential  to 
have  a  good  bull.  We  pin  our  hopes  on  him.  He  must  be  a  good 
individual,  he  must  be  purebred,  and  he  should  come  from  a  good  line 
of  ancestry.  These  three  points  are  guarantees  as  to  his  breeding 
ability. 

One  of  the  most  notable  examples  of  the  value  of  purebred  bulls 
as  herd  improvers  is  that  afforded  by  the  history  of  cattle  breeding  on 
western  ranges.  Beginning  with  the  old  Texas  long-horn  stock  which 
formed  the  foundation  of  range  herds,  successive  crosses  of  purebred 
sires  brought  remarkable  improvement  in  the  beef-making  qualities  of 
western  cattle.  (See  Fig.  49  and  compare  with  Fig.  30  in  preceding 
chapter.) 


lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  240. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


155 


The  higher-priced  bull  is  often  the  cheaper. — As  to  what  price 
the  breeder  is  justified  in  paying  for  a  bull,  that  will  vary  depending 
upon  the  conditions.  Some  very  satisfactory  bulls  have  been  bought 
at  very  moderate  prices.  If  a  full  quota  of  cows  is  at  hand  for  breeding, 
not  less  than  $150  should  be  invested  in  a  bull,  and  more  often  it  will 
be  advisable  to  pay  $200,  $250,  or  more,  rather  than  $150.  A  small 
increase  in  the  value  per  head  of  one  season's  crop  of  calves  by  the  use 
of  the  higher-priced  bull,  as  compared  with  the  cheap  one,  will  return 
the  difference  in  the  price  of  the  two  animals.  Furthermore,  when 
the  heifers  by  the  higher-priced  sire  are  used  in  the  breeding  herd, 


Fig.  51. — Selecting  a  future  herd  header.  Unly  good  purebred  bulls  should  be 
used  in  any  herd.  These  buyers  are  indicating  the  calf  that  is  superior  in  masculinity, 
constitution,  fleshing,  head,  bone,  spring  of  rib,  and  strength  of  top. 


improvement  thereafter  will  be  more  marked  and  the  desired  standard 
of  excellence  will  be  attained  in  shorter  time. 

The  following  table  ^  gives  the  averages  by  states  of  answers  made 
by  western  stockmen  in  1915  to  the  questions  indicated  by  the  headings 
of  the  various  columns  in  the  table.  This  table  furnishes  ample  proof 
of  the  fact  that  the  average  value  of  the  live  stock  of  a  community  is 


1  Barnes  and  Jardine:  Live  Stock  Production  in  the  Eleven  Far  Western  Range 
States,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Rpt.  110,  p.  27. 


156 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


in  direct  proportion  to  the  value  of  the  sires  used, 
no  higher  than  its  source." 


"A  stream  can  rise 


Value  of  beef  cattle  as  related  to  value  of  their  sires 


State 

Average 

number  of 

bulls  per  100 

cows 

Average 

value 
of  bulls 

Average 

number  of 

calves  per  100 

cows 

Average  weight  of  steers 

sold  from  range  or 

pasture 

Long  2-year- 
old 

Long  3-year- 
old 

Arizona 

6.00 
3.73 
4.16 
4.00 
3.44 
4.00 
5.00 
4.04 
4.00 
3.72 
5.52 

$82.00 

94.75 

131.90 

100.00 

138.00 

93.00 

83.00 

113.35 

93.00 

124.15 

160.50 

57.00 
73.55 
69.30 
75.00 
75.80 
70.00 
66.00 
75.74 
69.00 
79.48 
73.20 

774.0 
968.2 
883.0 

1,000.0 
991.0 
940.0 
725.0 
975.7 
900.0 

1,032.0 
937.0 

935  0 

California    .... 

1  141  6 

Colorado   . . 

1  084  5 

Idaho 

1  200  0 

Montana 

1  211  0 

Nevada 

1,140.0 
934.0 

New  Mexico 

Oregon 

1,186.0 

Utah 

1,085.0 

Washington 

1,225.0 

Wyoming 

1,155.0 

Arizona  and  New  Mexico  use  the  most  bulls  and  the  cheapest 
bulls.  These  states  are  credited  with  the  fewest  calves  and  the  steers 
produced  are  markedly  inferior  in  weight  at  two  and  three  years  of 
age.  Such  factors  as  climate,  feed  supply,  and  method  of  manage- 
ment affect  the  character  and  value  of  cattle  produced  on  the  range, 
yet  the  predominating  factor,  as  shown  by  the  above  table,  is  that  of 
good  breeding.  The  importance  of  good  breeding  is  again  shown  by 
the  fact  that  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  the  more  progressive  stock- 
men have  spent  large  sums  in  purchasing  good  bulls  and  this  has  re- 
sulted in  a  decided  improvement  in  the  grade  of  stock  on  the  public 
ranges  in  those  states  within  the  last  few  years.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  of  the  smaller  men  either  turn  out  scrubs  or  have  no  bulls  at 
all,  and  this  results  in  low  avejT^ges. 

Three  prime  essentials.w^In  selecting  beef  animals  for  breeding 
purposes,  the  breeder  should  emphasize  those  points  which  are  im- 
portant to  the  feeder  and  butcher,  but  must  keep  in  mind  his  own 
interests  as  well.  The  features  which  are  of  particular  interest  to  the 
breeder  are:  (1)  the  possession  of  a  good  constitution,  (2)  thick 
natural  flesh,  and  (3)  early  maturity.  The  first  of  these  is  also  of 
much  importance  to  the  feeder,  the  second  interests  all  parties  con- 
cerned with  beef  cattle,  and  the  third  interests  both  the  breeder  and 
feeder.  Constitution  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  for  it  guarantees 
thrift  and  vigorous  reproduction.  It  is  the  cornerstone  of  the  success- 
ful herd.  By  thick  natural  flesh  is  meant  a  full  muscular  development 
such  as  will  expand  into  a  maximum  fleshing  when  the  animal  is 
fattened.     Quick  maturity  makes  possible  a  finish  at  an  early  age,  and 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  157 

this  prime  essential  in  present-day  beef  production  is  characteristic  of 
cattle  that  have  the  blocky,  compact,  low-set  type. 

Weight  requirements. — When  cattle  intended  for  breeders  are  in 
high  condition,  the  standards  for  weights  at  various  ages  are  as  follows: 

Age  Weight  of  bull        Weight  of  cow 

Pounds  Pounds 

6  months 600  500 

12  months 1,075  750 

18  months 1,275  975 

24  months 1,500  1,150 

30  months 1,800  1,350 

36  months 1,975  1,475 

42  months 2,100  1,550 

Breeding  cattle  should  not  be  kept  in  high  condition,  but  that  is 
the  only  satisfactory  basis  for  fixing  weight  standards.  In  applying 
these  standards  due  allowance  should  be  made  for  lack  of  fat,  depend- 
ing upon  the  condition  of  the  animal,  'the  above  figures  are  for  pure- 
bred bulls  and  high-grade  cows  such  as  should  be  used  in  market  beef 
breeding  herds.  The  weights  given  for  bulls  thus  represent  higher 
standards  than  those  for  the  cows.  The  difference  in  the  matured 
weights  of  the  two  sexes  as  given  above,  while  largely  due  to  sex,  is 
due  in  part  to  higher  average  merit  in  the  bulls  than  in  the  cows. 

The  beef  bull. — In  general  appearance  the  beef  bull  is  nearly 
identical  with  the  steer,  being  wide,  deep,  compact,  straight  lined,  and 
low  set.  When  in  use  as  breeders,  bulls  are  seldom  kept  in  high  condi- 
tion, hence  in  studying  the  form  certain  allowances  should  be  made 
for  lack  of  fatness,  as  this  has  much  to  do  with  the  appearance  of 
blockiness  and  massiveness  presented  by  the  animal.  The  bull  should 
have  plenty  of  size  and  we  should  not  demand  the  same  degree  of 
refinement  in  bone  that  is  desired  in  the  steer,  yet  quality  should  be 
easily  apparent.  ^  The  hide  should  roll  up  mellow  and  loose  in  the 
hand,  showing  medium  thickness,  and  the  hair  should  be  soft  and  fine. 
Even  when  in  medium-fat  condition,  the  fleshing  should  be  abundant 
and  smooth.  The  head  should  be  clean-cut,  wide,  and  short,  though 
larger  than  the  steer's,  with  heavier  horns,  and  a  more  burly  appear- 
ance generally.  The  eye  shows  more  animation  or  spirit,  and  a  more 
resolute  expression.  Such  a  head  is  indicative  of  masculinity  which  is 
insisted  upon  by  all  breeders,  it  being  an  evidence  of  potency  or  breed- 
ing capacity.  The  bull  at  maturity  should  show  a  powerfully  muscled 
neck  with  a  pronounced  arch  or  crest,  this  also  indicating  masculinity. 
The  crest  should  come  forward  close  to  the  head,  and  the  neck  should 
be  short.     Masculinity  is  again  shown  in  the  shoulders  by  a  heavier, 

iThe  range  cattle  breeder  places  particular  emphasis  on  heavy  bone.  The 
conditions  under  which  range  cattle  are  produced  make  the  maintenance  of  size  and 
vigor  in  range  cattle  a  problem,  and  this  the  western  breeder  attempts  to  solve  in 
part  by  the  constant  use  of  heavy-boned  bulls. 


158 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


more  massive  development  than  is  found  in  the  steer,  yet  this  does 
not  excuse  a  rough,  prominent  shoulder  such  as  would  be  objectionable 
in  the  offspring  when  they  are  fed  for  market. 

The  entire  front  of  the  bull  is  well  developed  and  massive,  a  condi- 
tion which  is  inherited  by  domesticated  bulls  from  their  wild  ancestors. 
In  the  wild  state,  a  bull  became  the  head  of  the  herd  only  by  right  of 
conquest,  and  his  burly  head,  heavy  horns,  muscular  neck,  and  massive 
front  were  needed  to  defeat  his  male  rivals,  and  to  protect  the  herd 
from  its  enemies  after  he  had  gained  leadership.  It  was  a  survival  of 
the  fittest,  which  is  nature's  method  of  improving  the  wild  animals. 


Fig.  52. — Correct  type  in   the  beef  bull.     Erwin   C,   champion   Aberdeen- 
Angus  bull  at  the  1913  International.     Owned  by  W.  A.  McHenry,  Denison,  Iowa. 


Under  domestication,  the  masculine  characters  have  not  the  same 
values  as  in  the  wild  state,  yet  they  are  none  the  less  valuable,  because 
they  indicate  a  rugged,  vigorous,  and  potent  animal — qualities  highly 
prized  by  any  breeder.  A  wide,  deep  chest  and  full  middle  insure  a 
good  constitution.  The  middle  is  identical  in  form  with  the  middle  of 
the  steer,  but  more  emphasis  is  placed  upon  straightness  and  strength 
of  back.  The  hips  should  be  smooth,  and  the  hindquarters  should  be 
long,  level,  wide,  and  heavily  fleshed. 

Great  variation  will  be  found  in  the  manner  in  which  bulls  walk, 
some  doing  it  awkwardly  and  clumsily,  with  the  back  humped  to  a 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  159 

marked  degree,  and  with  the  legs  sprawhng;  others  are  active  in  th'eir 
movements,  keeping  their  legs  under  them,  and  carrying  themselves 
with  little  apparent  effort,  the  latter  of  course  being  much  preferred. 
Style  has  market  value  in  a  bull  as  in  a  steer,  and  between  an  animal 
that  stands  and  walks  properly,  and  one  that  slouches,  other  things 
being  equal,  the  former  will  sell  much  more  readily  if  they  are  priced 
the  same,  and  his  calves  will  more  quickly  attract  buyers  when  they 
reach  the  market.  Before  purchasing  a  bull,  the  cows  in  the  herd 
should  be  carefully  studied  and  their  weaknesses  noted,  so  that  a  bull 
may  be  selected  that  is  strong  in  the  points  where  the  cows  show 
weakness. 

A  beef  bull,  well  developed  at  a  year  old,  may  serve  a  few  cows, 
but  should  as  a  rule  be  eighteen  months  old.  An  ordinarily  vigorous 
mature  bull  will  get  100  calves  a  year  if  the  cows  come  to  him  at  proper 
intervals,  but  when  they  are  nearly  all  bred  in  the  spring  and  in  the 
fall  probably  60  is  about  the  usual  limit. 

The  beef  breeding  cow  or  heifer. — Cows  reach  maturity  quicker 
than  bulls,  but  do  not  attain  as  much  size  or  weight.  They  show 
more  refinement  at  all  points  than  do  males,  but  in  form  and  fleshing 
are  nearly  identical  with  all  good  beef  animals  regardless  of  sex.  In 
selecting  cows,  emphasis  is  placed  upon  constitution,  thick  natural 
flesh,  quick  maturity,  and  feminine  character.  The  head  shows 
marked  refinement,  and  there  is  a  calm  expression  of  the  eye,  showing 
a  much  milder  disposition  than  the  bull.  As  compared  with  steers, 
the  horns  are  less  developed,  and  the  neck  is  not  so  thick  and  perhaps 
not  quite  so  short.  The  shoulders  are  well  laid  in  and  smooth,  and 
throughout  the  forequarters  there  is  an  absence  of  the  great  strength 
and  massiveness  found  in  the  bull.  The  refinement  of  the  cow's  head, 
neck,  and  shoulders  is  an  evidence  of  femininity,  which,  like  masculinity 
in  the  male,  is  evidence  of  breeding  capacity.  "Motherly"  looking 
cows,  not  too  compact  in  form,  are  wanted.  A  coarse,  "steery"  headed 
female  is  seldom  a  successful  breeder.  Although  she  may  produce  a 
calf  each  year,  her  stock  is  not  likely  to  possess  the  high  qualities  that 
one  expects. 

A  straight,  strong  back  and  wide,  deep  middle  are  as  desirable  in 
the  cow  as  in  the  bull  or  steer,  indeed  even  more  so,  as  a  capacious 
middle  provides  ample  room  for  carrying  the  calf.  Cows  should  be  a 
Httle  longer  in  the  middle,  a  little  less  compact  in  other  words,  than 
steers  and  bulls.  The  hips  are  notably  different,  showing  more  width 
and  prominence,  and  this  feature  is  often  so  pronounced  as  to  cause 
criticism.  While  a  wider  hip  is  accepted  in  cows  than  in  other  beef 
animals,  nevertheless  care  should  be  taken  to  guard  against  undue 
prominence.     Cows  are  also  usually  shorter  and  rougher  in  the  rump 


160 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


than  bulls,  but  the  rump  should  be  as  long,  level,  wide,  and  smoothly 
fleshed  as  possible. 

So  far  as  condition  is  concerned,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
breeding  cow  is  more  valuable  on  account  of  the  progeny  she  produces 
than  on  account  of  her  own  excellence  as  an  animal  suitable  for  slaugh- 
ter, hence  we  do  not  fault  her  if  she  lacks  in  fatness,  provided  her 
constitution,  form,  and  quality  are  good.  However,  the  beef  cow  must 
possess  the  ability  to  fatten  readily,  for  "like  produces  like,"  and  if 
the  cow  will  not  take  on  flesh  readily,  then  we  cannot  expect  her  calves 
to  be  profitable  in  the  feed-lot.     It  is  on  this  account  that  beef  breeding 


Fig.  53. — Correct  type  in  the  beef  cow.     Fair  Start  2d,  a  noted  Shorthorn 
show  cow  owned  by  George  J.  Sayer,  McHenry,  111. 

bulls  and  cows  are  shown  in  heavy  flesh  in  the  show  ring,  thus  indicat- 
ing their  capacity  as  beef  producers.  Beef  cows  are  sometimes  made 
so  fat  for  showing  that  their  usefulness  as  breeders  is  injured  by  a 
heavy  deposit  of  fat  about  the  generative  organs.  The  practice  has, 
therefore,  been  severely  criticized,  yet  the  danger  is  not  great  if  the 
feeding  is  carefully  managed,  and  the  advantages  so  far  outweigh  the 
disadvantages  that  the  showing  of  breeding  animals  in  high  condition 
seems  destined  to  continue. 

In  the  show  ring,  little  or  no  attention  is  paid  to  the  udder  of  the 
beef  cow,  but  the  man  who  breeds  beef  cattle  cannot  ignore  the  cow's 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  161 

milk-producing  qualities.  The  udder  should  be  of  good  size  and  shape, 
with  well-placed  teats,  and  the  cow  should  be  able  to  furnish  ample 
milk  for  her  calf  during  at  least  the  first  six  months  of  lactation.  E.  S. 
Bayard,  a  breeder  of  beef  cattle  and  editor  of  the  National  Stockman 
and  Farmer,  has  the  following  to  say  regarding  the  selection  of  beef 
cows  and  the  importance  of  good  milking  qualities:^  'Good-sized, 
roomy,  robust  cows;  with  breadth  but  not  coarseness;  big  of  barrel, 
loose  of  hide,  short  of  leg,  neat  of  head,  mild  of  manner,  placid  of 
countenance,  with  a  decidedly  feminine  expression,  are  the  kind. 
Cows  that  are  good  milkers,  as  a  rule,  are  good  and  regular  breeders — 
they  do  not  get  too  fat  to  breed.  Their  calves  are  started  well,  are 
kept  going,  and  develop  rapidly,  for  there  is  no  feed  for  a  calf  or  any 
other  animal  that  will  take  the  place  of  mother's  milk.  The  cows 
which  milk  most  and  lose  flesh  most  rapidly  when  suckling  calves  are 
the  quickest-fleshing  cows.  They  milk  down  rapidly  and  they  recover 
flesh  quickly  when  relieved  of  the  strain  of  milk  production.  This 
characteristic  of  quick  fleshing  usually  accompanies  good  milking,  but 
not  persistent  milking  of  course.  Beef-bred  cows  are  not,  as  a  rule, 
all-the-year  milkers,  nor  is  it  desirable  that  they  should  be.  Milk 
enough  is  vital  to  success,  and  breeders  of  beef  cattle  cannot  afford 
to  neglect  it  any  more  than  they  can  afford  to  make  it  a  leading  object 
of  their  breeding.  So  get  lady  cows,  feminine  type,  with  good  udders, 
and  they  can  be  found  in  all  the  beef  breeds.  Let  the  steery  cow  alone 
as  you  would  the  bull  that  lacks  masculinity.' 

The  cows  which  raise  good  calves  should  be  retained  in  the  herd  as 
long  as  they  are  useful,  and  those  which  fail  to  produce  good  offspring 
should  be  sent  to  the  butcher  no  matter  how  attractive  they  may  be 
individually.  The  attractive  fat  cow  that  gives  no  milk  and  raises  a 
small,  scrawny  calf  is  not  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  herd,  whereas  some 
of  the  good  mothers  may  nurse  down  pretty  thin  and  look  rather 
unattractive  after  they  have  suckled  their  calves  for  a  time.  When  a 
cattle  breeder  designates  his  plainest-looking  cows  as  the  best  producers 
in  his  herd  he  is  often  fully  justified  in  doing  so.  Save  those  that  are 
best  by  test,  and  replace  the  unprofitable  cows  with  the  best  of  the 
crop  of  heifers. 

In  many  instances,  heifers  are  bred  at  15  to  18  months  old,  but 
it  is  better  practice  to  begin  breeding  them  at  about  21  months  so  that 
they  drop  their  first  calves  at  about  30  months.  The  period  of  gesta- 
tion often  varies  from  274  to  287  days,  and  the  average  is  about  280 
days. 

Value  of  records. — The  feeder  ought  to  weigh  his  cattle  regularly, 
and  keep  careful  and  complete  records  of  the  weights  and  of  all  items 

1  Beef  Production,  Penn.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  235,  pp.  35,  36. 


162 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


of  expense  incurred  in  finishing  and  marketing,  so  that  he  may  know 
whether  his  cattle  return  him  a  profit  or  were  fed  at  a  loss.  In  either 
case,  the  records  are  available  for  study,  and  when  the  next  lot  is  fed, 
comparisons  may  be  made  and  benefits  derived  from  past  experiences. 
This  is  all  the  more  important  in  the  case  of  feeders  who  breed  their 
own  calves,  for  then  such  records  are  doubly  valuable  as  they  greatly 
assist  in  determining  the  producing  qualities  of  the  animals  in  the 
breeding  herd.  If  the  breeder  has  a  chance  to  see  the  carcasses  yielded 
by  cattle  of  his  own  breeding,  he  should  avail  himself  of  it  and  talk 
with  some  well-qualified  butcher  regarding  their  merits  and  faults. 
By  such  progressive  methods  will  the  breeder  forge  ahead  and  obtain 
the  maximum  profit  and  satisfaction  from  his  business. 


Fig.  54. — An  excellent  breeding  cow.  Blackbird  Perfection  2d,  Aberdeen- 
Angus  cow  owned  by  Iowa  State  College.  Beefy  throughout,  yet  not  milkless. 
She  has  good  udder  development  and  can  raise  her  calf. 

In  conclusion,  there  is  good  opportunity  for  profit  in  beef  produc- 
tion, and  the  soil  needs  the  fertility  which  comes  from  the  keeping  of 
live  stock.  The  factors  necessary  to  insure  success  in  beef  production 
are  (1)  good  pastures,  (2)  better  care  of  pastures,  (3)  utilization  of 
corn  stalks  through  the  use  of  a  silo,  (4)  the  growing  and  feeding  of 
alfalfa,  (5)  keeping  the  best  heifer  calves  for  breeding  purposes,  (6) 
buying  only  good,  purebred,  beef  bulls  to  mate  with  them,  and  (7) 
staying  by  beef  production  year  in  and  year  out,  making  it  a  permanent 
part  of  farming  operations. 


CHAPTER  X 

DAIRY  TYPE 

Dairy  animals  that  are  correct  in  type  present  a  marked  contrast 
to  beef  animals.  The  body  and  back  are  longer  and  much  narrower, 
the  thighs  are  thin,  the  neck  longer  and  more  slender,  and  in  all  parts 
the  animal  is  lean  and  angular,  whereas  the  beef  animal  is  thick-fleshed 
and  smooth.  The  lean,  angular  appearance  is  highly  desirable,  but 
an  emaciated  condition  is  sharply  discriminated  against  because  it 
indicates  a  lack  of  health  and  vigor.  Both  males  and  females  are 
rather  sharp  at  the  withers,  deep  ribbed,  medium  in  length  of  leg,  and 
well  divided  between  the  hind  legs.  There  should  be  no  bulge  to 
the  thigh,  and  no  tendency  toward  the  development  of  what  is  called 
the  "twist"  in  beef  cattle.  There  is  a  limit  to  an  animal's  feeding  and 
digestive  capacity,  hence  one  animal  cannot  produce  both  beef  and 
milk  in  maximum  quantities.  Breeders  of  dairy  cattle  want  the  dairy 
cow  to  do  one  thing  only;  they  discriminate  against  beefiness  just  as 
sharply  as  they  favor  evidences  of  large  milking  capacity. 

The  Dairy  Cow 

Dairy  cows  may  be  judged  by  two  distinct  methods.  One  method 
consists  of  keeping  records  of  the  cow's  production,  including  the  dura- 
tion of  the  lactation  periods,  the  pounds  of  milk  given  at  each  milking, 
and  the  results  of  the  Babcock  tests  for  butter-fat.  Records  may  also 
be  kept  of  the  quantities  of  feed  consumed  and  the  cost  of  the  feed- 
stuflfs  used,  so  that  at  the  end  of  each  year  an  accounting  may  be  made 
with  each  cow,  and  her  profitableness  or  unprofitableness  accurately 
determined.  This  method  gets  right  at  the  cow's  producing  capacity 
and  removes  all  doubt  concerning  her  right  to  a  place  in  a  producing 
herd.  It  is  also  much  used  in  estimating  a  cow's  value  for  breeding 
purposes.     This  method  may  be  called  judging  by  performance. 

The  other  method  of  judging  dairy  cows  consists  of  a  detailed 
study  of  the  animal,  and  an  examination  for  certain  characteristics 
which  are  evidences  of  milk-producing  capacity.  If  the  fifty  highest- 
producing  dairy  cows  in  the  United  States  were  assembled  so  that 
comparisons  might  easily  be  made,  considerable  variation  would  be 
found  among  them  in  form,  quality,  udder,  and  other  points.  Yet 
through  all  these  cows  would  run  certain  well-defined  characteristics 
which  dairymen  have  come  to  know  are  associated  with  heavy  produc- 
tion. These  characteristics  may  be  causes  of  the  heavy  yield,  or 
merely  incidental  correlates,  but  in  either  case  they  are  evidences  of 


164 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


productive  capacity,  and  are  valuable  aids  in  judging  dairy  cows. 
Many  dairymen  keep  no  records  of  the  production  in  their  herds,  and 
rely  solely  upon  an  examination  of  the  individuality  when  additional 
cows  are  purchased.  There  are  other  men  who  ridicule  the  idea  of 
judging  a  cow  by  any  other  means  than  records  of  her  performance; 
they  will  tell  you  of  cows  which  score  high  but  are  poor  yielders,  and 
of  other  cows  which  score  low  but  are  big  producers.  However,  such 
instances  are  exceptional  and  should  not  dislodge  one's  faith  in  the 
value  of  studying  the  individuality  of  dairy  cows.  No  doubt  it  is 
wrong  to  rely  solely  upon  either  method  of  judging,  for  the  two  methods 
may  be  combined  to  the  advantage  of  each,  and  in  this  way  the  best 
estimate  of  the  value  of  a  dairy  cow  is  made. 


24 


Fig.  55. — Points  of  the  dairy  cow. 


1. 

Muzzle 

9. 

Neck 

17. 

Ribs 

25. 

Thigh 

2. 

Face 

10. 

Throat 

18. 

Back 

26. 

Hind  leg 

3. 

Eye 

11. 

Dewlap 

19. 

Loin 

27. 

Udder 

4. 

Forehead 

12. 

Brisket 

20. 

Barrel 

28. 

Teats 

5. 

Ear 

13. 

Shoulder 

21. 

Hip  or  hook 

29. 

Milk-vein 

6. 

Poll 

14. 

Withers 

22. 

Rump 

30. 

Milk-well 

7. 

Cheek 

15. 

Fore  leg 

23. 

Pin  bones 

31. 

Navel 

8. 

Jaw 

16. 

Fore-rib 

24. 

Tail 

The  form  of  the  high-class  dairy  cow  is  that  of  a  triple- wedge. 
One  wedge  is  apparent  from  a  side  view;  the  cow  is  much  deeper  behind 
than  in  front,  so  that  if  the  top  line  and  underline  were  continued  on 
forward  they  would  meet  at  a  point  not  far  in  front  of  the  animal. 
The  second  wedge  is  formed  by  a  widening  from  breast  to  hindquarters, 
so  that  the  side  lines  rapidly  converge  if  they  are  carried  out  in  front 
of  the  cow.  These  two  wedges  are  sometimes  secured,  in  part  at  least, 
by  a  lack  of  width  and  depth  in  the  chest,  whereas  they  should  result 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  165 

solely  because  of  much  width  and  depth  of  barrel,  thus  giving  the 
needed  digestive  capacity.  Therefore  the  wedge  form  characteristic 
of  the  dairy  cow  is  not  valuable  in  itself,  and  the  mere  fact  that  a  cow 
has  it  is  not  sufficient.  The  examination  should  go  deeper;  the  wedges 
should  be  analyzed  and  their  causes  determined.  The  third  wedge  is 
formed  by  the  shoulders  and  withers;  the  withers  constitute  the  point 
of  the  wedge,  and  the  shoulders  widen  out  below  to  provide  the  nec- 
essary chest  capacity.  This  wedge  insures  against  coarseness  at  the 
withers  and  heavy  fleshing  on  the  shoulders.  The  general  form  of  the 
cow  is  very  angular  throughout,  due  to  a  well-developed  frame  and 
the  presence  of  but  little  flesh  to  give  smoothness  to  the  parts.     Some 


Fig.  56. — A  dairy  cow  with  utility  points,  emphasized.  Holstein-Friesian  cow, 
Minerva  Beets,  five  times  champion  of  her  breed  at  the  National  Dairy  Show.  Owned 
by  R.  E.  Haeger,  Algonquin,  111.  Correct  form,  excellent  quality,  a  high  degree  of 
dairy  temperament,  and  great  femininity  are  all  plainly  evident  in  this  picture.  Note 
especially  the  feminine  head,  faultless  neck,  straight  strong  top,  deep  barrel,  well- 
balanced  udder,  and  good  teats. 

allowance,  however,  must  be  made  for  sex  and  age;  we  naturally  expect 
more  fleshing  in  the  bull  than  in  the  cow  in  milk,  and  the  same  is  true 
of  young  heifers  before  their  first  calving,  and  also  of  dry  cows.  Some 
dairymen  make  an  effort  to  fatten  dry  cows,  for  the  added  body-fat 
is  resorbed  and  converted  into  butter-fat  when  the  cow  again  comes 
in  milk,  thus  temporarily  raising  the  percentage  of  butter-fat  above  the 
normal.  These  features,  however,  do  not  excuse  any  persistent  beefy 
tendency  in  dairy  animals,  it  being  distinctly  objectionable. 


166  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

The  head  of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  lean,  and  have  a  broad  muzzle, 
large  nostrils,  and  a  dished  face.  Compared  with  the  head  of  the  beef 
animal,  there  is  less  width  and  more  length,  the  proportions  of  the  head 
being  medium  long  and  medium  broad.  The  eyes  should  be  prominent, 
bright,  calm,  and  wide  apart,  and  the  forehead  should  be  fairly  wide. 
The  jaws  should  be  strong,  and  the  cheeks  well  muscled.  The  ears 
should  be  fine  in  texture,  and  of  medium  size.  The  horns  should  be 
fine  and  have  a  curve  that  adds  to,  rather  than  detracts  from,  the 
appearance.  In  Guernsey  cattle,  a  yellowish  secretion  of  the  skin 
inside  of  the  ear,  and  a  waxy  color  of  the  horn  are  regarded  as  evidence 
that  the  butter  will  have  a  rich,  golden  color.  The  head  should  have 
a  distinctly  feminine  expression,  and  in  all  its  features  should  be  clean- 
cut  and  sharply  defined.  Such  a  head  has  a  chiseled  appearance 
indicative  of  quality  and  good  breeding. 

The  neck  should  be  long  and  fine.  The  upper  edge  has  a  slight 
concave  curve,  and  the  lower  border  has  a  thin  fold  or  edge  of  skin, 
called  the  "dewlap,"  extending  upwards  from  the  brisket.  If  the  neck 
is  short  and  thick,  or  has  much  depth,  so  as  to  make  it  appear  heavy, 
there  is  a  lack  of  true  dairy  type.  The  throat  should  be  neat  and  trim, 
rather  than  full.  Naturally  we  do  not  want  the  neck  and  shoulders 
to  blend  smoothly  as  in  beef  cattle,  for  this  results  from  heavy  fleshing. 

The  brisket  of  the  dairy  cow  is  much  narrower  and  sharper  than 
in  beef  cattle,  and  does  not  carry  forward  so  prominently,  the  difference 
being  mainly  due  to  the  heavy  fleshing  of  the  beef  animal. 

The  shoulders  should  be  light,  that  is,  free  from  coarseness  and 
heavy  fleshing,  and  the  tops  of  the  shoulder  blades  and  the  spines  of 
the  vertebrae  should  form  rather  sharp  and  refined  withers.  The 
shoulders  will  not  appear  smooth,  but  they  should  not  be  rough  and 
coarse.  A  rather  open,  loosely  connected  shoulder  is  associated  with 
the  open-jointed  conformation  desired  in  the  dairy  animal,  and  is  a 
feature  found  in  many  of  the  record-holding  cows. 

The  front  legs  should  be  of  medium  length,  should  come  down 
straight,  and  the  toes  should  point  straight  ahead.  The  pasterns 
should  be  strong.  There  should  be  no  coarseness  of  shanks  or  joints. 
Very  often  the  knees  come  quite  close  together,  the  legs  being  crooked, 
and  the  toes  turning  out,  but  this  is  a  faulty  conforniation  and  is  often 
associated  with  a  narrow  chest  and  lack  of  constitution. 

The  chest  gets  its  capacity  from  depth  more  than  from  width. 
However,  the  fore-rib  should  have  at  least  a  medium  degree  of  arch; 
breeders  of  Holstein-Friesian  cattle  place  much  emphasis  upon  a  pro- 
nounced arch  of  rib.  The  fore-rib  should  carry  down  deep  to  give 
plenty  of  room  for  the  heart  and  lungs.  Beef  cattle  should  fill  up  full 
and  smooth  with  flesh  behind  the  shoulder,  but  dairy  cattle  typically 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


167 


show  some  slight  depression  just  behind  the  shoulder,  although  the 
heart-girth  must  be  very  large  to  insure  a  strong  constitution.  The 
distance  between  the  front  legs  is  a  fairly  accurate  measure  of  the 
width  of  the  chest  floor,  which  should  not  be  cramped,  but  ample, 
with  the  front  flanks  well  filled  out.  In  making  a  large  flow  of  milk, 
the  heart  has  to  pump  great  quantities  of  blood  which  the  lungs  must 
purify,  thus  demanding  that  the  dairy  cow  have  a  large  chest  capacity 
and  an  excellent  constitution. 

The  back  should  be  straight  and  strong,  and  have  moderate  width, 
and  a  fair  degree  of  length.     Dairy  cattle  seem  put  together  somewhat 


Fig.  57. — Excellent  type  in  Iul  uau ^  ^uw.  Guernsey  cow,  Langwater  Dairy- 
maid, first  prize  winner  as  a  four- year-old  at  the  National  Dairy  Show.  Owned  by 
C.  L.  A.  Whitney,  Albany,  N.  Y.  Note  the  breedy  head  and  neck,  straight  top  line, 
shapely  udder,  and  the  quality,  femininity,  and  dairy  temperament  shown  in  this 
cow.  She  has  an  official  yearly  record  of  16,949.2  pounds  of  milk  and  812.66  pounds 
of  butter-fat. 

loosely;  it  is  not  desired  that  they  should  be  closely  coupled  or  short 
in  the  back.  A  sway-back  is  sometimes  said  to  indicate  true  dairy 
type,  but  there  is  no  good  argument  in  support  of  this  view;  it  is  logical 
that  cows  with  big  middles  should  have  straight,  strong  tops.  Some 
dairymen  also  desire  that  the  backbone  shall  stand  up  prominently 
along  the  back,  loin,  and  rump,  and  terminate  in  a  long  tail.  The 
argument  is  that  a  well-developed  backbone  encloses  a  large  spinal 


168  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

cord,  and  as  a  large  nerve  branches  off  at  the  last  dorsal  vertebrae  and 
goes  to  the  udder  to  control  operations  there,  a  large  spinal  column  is 
accepted  as  evidence  of  proper  development  of  the  nervous  system, 
which,  in  turn,  is  supposed  to  signify  increased  efficiency  on  the  part 
of  the  cow  as  a  milk  machine.  Whether  the  size  of  the  brain,  spinal 
cord,  and  branching  nerves,  rather  than  their  quality  and  texture, 
determines  the  efficiency  of  the  nervous  system  may  be  questioned, 
and  as  for  the  course  of  reasoning  showing  the  relation  between  length 
of  tail  and  quantity  of  milk  yield,  the  reader  may  take  it  for  what  he 
deems  it  worth  and  form  his  own  conclusions.  In  any  event,  there 
are  many  other  ways  of  estimating  a  cow's  value,  the  reliability  of 
which  are  better  substantiated.  However,  a  prominent  backbone  is 
valuable  as  an  evidence  of  true  dairy  temperament,  or  freedom  from 
beefiness. 

The  loin  should  be  rather  long,  should  carry  up  level  and  strong, 
and  show  a  fair  degree  of  width. 

The  barrel  ought  to  be  very  deep  and  wide,  and  this  is  secured 
when  the  ribs  are  very  long  and  reasonably  well  arched.  There  will 
be  no  such  degree  of  rotundity  as  is  found  in  beef  cattle;  there  should 
be  a  well-developed  paunch  with  capacity  for  a  large  amount  of  feed. 
A  flat-sided  conformation  means  a  restricted  capacity.  The  ribs  do 
not  lie  close  together  along  the  side  as  in  beef  cattle,  and  there  is  more 
space  between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip. 

Of  all  the  points  discussed  thus  far,  two  are  of  vast  importance; 
these  are  constitution  and  digestive  capacity.  The  dairy  cow  is  a 
milk  machine  and  should  be  studied  and  operated  as  such.  It  is  thus 
much  easier,  when  judging,  to  put  emphasis  where  it  belongs  and  so 
arrive  more  quickly  at  the  true  worth  of  the  animal.  Milk  is  manu- 
factured in  the  udder  from  nutriment  derived  from  the  feed,  and  if 
the  cow  has  the  true  dairy  temperament  and  does  not  tend  to  take 
on  flesh,  the  quantity  of  her  milk  yield  will  be  in  direct  relation  to  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  feed  consumed.  A  large  milk  flow  there- 
fore necessitates  full  development  of  the  organs  of  digestion,  respira- 
tion, and  circulation,  the  external  evidences  of  which  are  a  large  heart- 
girth,  a  large  barrel-girth,  and  a  rather  lengthy  middle. 

The  hips  are  very  prominent,  and  should  be  as  wide  as  possible. 
Narrowness  across  the  hips  is  often  associated  with  a  lack  of  width  in 
barrel,  and  when  the  hips  and  rump  are  narrow,  the  hind  legs  are  usually 
too  close  together,  leaving  little  space  for  the  udder. 

The  rump  should  be  wide  and  level  to  insure  against  difficulty  in 
calving,  and  should  not  rise  strongly  at  the  tail-head,  as  that  conforma- 
tion usually  goes  with  the  sway-back.  A  level  rump  is  usually  asso- 
ciated with  a  level  udder.     Length  of  rump  is  also  very  desirable;  it 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  169 

gives  symmetry  to  the  form,  and  provides  room  for  a  long  udder- 
attachment  below.  A  narrow,  peaked  rump  is  liable  to  cause  trouble 
at  calving  time,  and,  as  pointed  out,  it  brings  the  hind  legs  too  close 
together.  At  the  end  of  the  rump  on  either  side  of  the  tail  are  the 
pin-bones.  They  should  be  wide  apart,  for  reasons  similar  to  those  just 
mentioned.  From  the  point  of  the  hip  to  the  end  of  the  rump  there 
should  be  a  well-marked  hollow,  insuring  against  beefiness  of  rump. 
The  tail  performs  a  part  in  milk  production  by  protecting  from 
the  annoyance  of  flies.  The  fleshy  part  of  the  tail  should  extend  to 
the  point  of  the  hock  and  the  brush  should  be  heavy  and  long.     The 


Fig.  58. — Type  and  production.  Jersey  cow,  Fauvic  Star,  owned  by  A.  V. 
Barnes,  New  Canaan,  Conn.  Note  the  beautiful  head,  excellent  lines,  capacious 
middle,  large  udder,  feminine  character,  and  marked  degree  of  quality.  She  holds 
the  highest  Jersey  record  in  milk  production,  with  20,616  pounds  of  milk  and 
1,005.90  pounds  of  butter-fat  in  an  official  yearly  test. 

root  of  the  tail  should  be  carried  on  a  line  with  the  rump,  showing  no 
undue  prominence  or  roughness. 

The  thighs  should  be  muscular,  but  not  fleshy.  From  a  rear  view 
they  should  be  fine  and  there  should  be  no  fleshing  between  the  legs  to 
take  up  the  space  that  should  be  filled  by  the  udder.  It  is  desirable 
that  the  thighs  be  long,  and  that  the  conformation  inside  the  thigh  be 
incurving.  Much  variation  in  rumps  and  thighs  will  be  found  in  dairy 
animals,  ranging  from  decided  beefiness  to  the  trim,  clean-cut  conforma- 
tion shown  by  the  best  dairy  cows. 


170  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

The  hind  legs  should  be  placed  well  apart,  and  they  should  come 
down  straight.  If  the  toes  point  outward  and  the  hocks  come  close 
together,  the  conformation  is  weak  and  there  is  not  sufficient  room  for 
the  udder. 

The  udder  of  the  dairy  cow  comes  in  for  special  attention,  ranking 
in  importance  with  the  chest  and  barrel,  the  three  being  fundamental 
in  the  make-up  of  a  successful  dairy  cow.  The  udder's  size,  texture, 
shape,  and  teats  should  be  carefully  studied. 

Size  of  udder. — The  udder  should  be  large,  carrying  well  forward 
along  the  belly,  and  extending  far  backward  and  high  up  between  the 
hind  legs.  When  a  side  view  of  the  cow  is  taken  as  she  stands  in 
natural  position,  the  udder  should  carry  out  far  in  front  of  the  hind 
legs,  and  the  swell  of  the  rear  quarters  of  the  udder  should  be  plainly 
evident  back  of  the  leg.  The  udder  should  also  be  wide  in  its  attach- 
ment to  the  body  throughout,  and  there  should  be  much  fullness  of 
udder  from  side  to  side,  with  good  width  also  across  the  floor  (lower 
surface)  of  the  udder.  A  measurement  of  nearly  six  feet  around  the 
udder  has  been  reported,  just  two  inches  less  than  the  cow's  heart- 
girth.  The  udders  of  heifers  are  often  deceptive,  having  much  greater 
capacity  than  the  exterior  indicates.  This  is  because  the  udder  is 
held  snugly  against  the  abdominal  wall;  but  with  increase  in  age  and 
yield  of  milk,  the  added  weight  produces  some  relaxation  of  the 
supporting  tissues,  and  the  udder  becomes  more  pendulous  and 
prominent. 

Texture  of  udder. — Two  sorts  of  tissue  mainly  compose  the 
udder — glandular  tissue  and  connective  tissue.  The  former  is  the  seat 
of  secretory  activity,  and  the  latter  serves  the  purpose  of  a  framework 
or  support.  More  or  less  fatty  tissue  is  also  present.  Naturally,  it 
is  very  important  that  there  be  a  large  proportion  of  glandular  tissue 
and  a  relatively  small  amount  of  connective  tissue.  This  is  determined 
by  examining  the  udder  with  the  hands  for  mellowness,  which  indicates 
that  the  udder  is  largely  glandular;  or  still  better  by  having  the  cow 
milked,  when  the  udder  should  show  much  decrease  in  size,  and  the 
skin  covering  it  should  shrivel.  When  the  udder  is  composed  largely 
of  connective  tissue,  if  feels  firm  and  is  referred  to  as  "meaty,"  and 
when  it  is  milked  out,  the  yield  of  milk  is  small  and  the  udder  shows 
little  or  no  decrease  in  size.  Unfortunately,  meaty  udders  usually 
excel  in  shape  and  appearance,  while  the  most  glandular  ones  have  not 
suflScient  connective  tissue  to  properly  support  them,  the  heavy  weight 
causing  them  to  hang  down  rather  loosely  to  form  what  is  called  a 
"pendant"  udder.  Many  large  producers  have  such  udders,  whereas 
it  is  a  fact  that  the  type  of  udder  that  wins  in  the  show  ring  is  often 
lacking  in  milk  capacity.     The  skin  and  hair  covering  the  udder  should 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


171 


be  very  soft  and  fine.     Texture  of  udder  is  one  of  the  most  important 
considerations  in  judging  dairy  cows. 

Shape  of  udder. — All  sorts  of  sizes,  textures,  and  shapes  are 
presented.  The  most  desirable  shape  is  an  evenly  balanced  udder, 
with  all  four  quarters  fully  developed,  and  having  a  flat  floor,  instead 
of  being  cut  up  between  the  halves  and  quarters.  There  is  a  natural 
tendency  for  the  rear  quarters  to  develop  much  more  than  the  front 
quarters,  the  latter  often  terminating  abruptly,  but  the  most  desirable 
shape  is  one  extending  well  forward  to  make  what  is  termed  a  balanced 
udder.  Udders  which  carry  neither  forward  nor  backward,  but  are 
small  and  tapering  from  base  to  teats,  without  any  fullness,  are  termed 


Fig.  59. — Excellent  type  in  the  dairy  cow.  Ayrshire  cow,  Kilnford  Bell  3d, 
twice  champion  at  the  National  Dairy  Show.  Owned  by  Adam  Seitz,  Waukesha, 
Wis.  Note  the  beautiful  head  of  this  cow,  and  her  large,  shapely  udder.  Her  con- 
formation indicates  strength  and  vigor  without  coarseness. 

"funnel-shaped"  udders.  Undoubtedly  there  is  considerable  correla- 
tion between  shape  of  rump  and  shape  of  udder.  A  long  rump  goes 
with  a  long  udder,  a  wide  rump  with  a  wide  udder,  and  a  level  rump  is 
associated  with  a  level  udder  in  contrast  to  the  tipped-up  form  of 
udder  so  often  associated  with  a  drooping  rump.  Shape  and  balance 
of  udder  are  important,  but  subsidiary  to  size  and  texture. 

The  teats  and  their  placement. — The  teats  should  be  cylindrical, 
perpendicular,  hang  on  the  same  level,  and  be  placed  at  least  six  inches 
apart  each  way,  so  as  to  be  easily  grasped  in  the  hand.  They  should 
be  three  or  four  inches  long  and  of  a  size  to  make  milking  easy,  but  not 


172 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


too  large,  for  udders  with  very  large  teats  are  usually  cut  up  between 
the  halves  and  quarters,  and  this  occurs  at  the  expense  of  glandular 
tissue.  When  dairy  cows  are  judged,  a  small  amount  of  milk  is  drawn 
from  each  teat  to  make  certain  that  the  teat  is  unobstructed  and  free 
from  defects  not  evident  to  the  eye.  Leaky  teats  are  due  to  weakness 
of  the  muscles  of  the  teat,  this  being  an  undesirable  trait  rather  com- 
monly met  with,  especially  in  heavy  milkers  just  before  milking  time. 
Some  udders  have  not  only  four  large  teats,  but  also  one  or  more  small 
or  rudimentary  ones.  A  small  amount  of  milk  may  sometimes  be 
drawn  from  them,  as  they  usually  spring  from  rudimentary  glands. 
It  is  preferred  that  the  udder  have  four  full-sized  teats,  and  four  only. 


I'luiiimj 


Fig.  60. — A  combination  of  beauty  and  utility.  Jersey  cow,  Bosnian's  Anna, 
champion  at  the  National  Dairy  Show.  Owned  by  C.  I.  Hudson,  East  Norwich, 
L.  I.,  N.  Y.  Her  chiseled,  feminine  head,  straight  top  line,  deep  rib,  nicely  balanced 
udder,  and  large  veins  are  all  noteworthy.  She  is  especially  strong  in  temperament 
and  quality.  Note  also  the  correlation  between  levelness  of  rump  and  levelness  of 
udder. 


In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  the  udder,  first  of  all,  should  be 
large;  second,  it  should  be  mellow  and  glandular;  third,  it  should  be 
well-balanced  and  of  good  shape;  fourth,  the  teats  should  be  of  medium 
size  and  placed  well  apart. 

The  milk-veins  are  large  veins  passing  forward  from  the  udder 
along  the  belly  just  beneath  the  skin,  and  disappearing  through  open- 
ings in  the  body-wall  known  as  milk-wells.  The  position  of  the  milk- 
wells  varies;  some  are  near  the  fore  flanks,  and  some  midway  between 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  173 

the  udder  and  the  front  legs.  As  will  be  explained  more  fully  later, 
nutriment  derived  from  the  feed  is  carried  to  the  udder  by  the  blood 
and  is  there  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  milk.  After  the  udder  has 
absorbed  those  elements  necessary  in  making  milk,  the  blood  returns 
to  the  heart  through  the  milk-veins.  It  is  evident  that  the  size  and 
development  of  these  veins  is  a  good  index  to  the  cow's  milking  capac- 
ity, hence  they  are  highly  useful  in  judging  dairy  cows.  The  milk- 
veins  of  young  heifers  are  small  in  diameter  and  are  straight.  As  the 
heifer  develops  and  her  milk  flow  increases,  the  veins  show  increase  in 
diameter,  sometimes  to  an  inch  or  more,  they  often  become  crooked  or 
tortuous,  and  may  extend  forward  toward  the  fore  flanks.  The  degree 
of  tortuousness  varies  according  to  the  vein's  diameter,  small  veins 
being  nearly  straight  and  large  ones  very  crooked  indeed.  There  will 
be  at  least  two  milk-veins,  one  on  each  side  of  the  belly,  and  some- 
times there  will  be  three,  the  third  one  having  a  position  on  the  middle 
of  the  abdomen  between  the  two  side  veins.  They  sometimes  show 
more  or  less  branching,  each  branch  passing  forward  and  disappearing 
through  its  own  milk-well.  Although  diameter  of  veins  is  probably 
most  important,  length  and  extension  of  veins  are  also  regarded  as 
important,  indicating  an  increased  venous  development  and  capacity 
for  a  larger  flow  of  blood,  due  to  the  added  number  of  milk-wells  which 
make  easy  the  work  of  handling  a  large  circulation.  Nearly  all  phe- 
nomenal producers  have  veins  not  only  of  large  diameter  and  decided 
tortuousness,  but  also  of  many  branches  and  forward  extensions. 
Small  veins,  called  udder  veins,  occur  on  some  udders,  their  presence 
being  further  evidence  of  a  well-developed  mammary  circulation. 

The  milk -wells  vary  in  size  to  correspond  with  the  veins,  and  are 
taken  into  account  in  judging.  They  should  be  large  and  easily 
indented  when  the  finger  is  applied  to  them. 

The  escutcheon  or  "milk  mirror"  is  that  portion  of  the  udder  and 
thighs  that  is  covered  with  hairs  turning  up  and  out,  instead  of  down, 
as  on  the  rest  of  the  body.  A  Frenchman,  Francois  Guenon,  beginning 
in  1814  as  a  boy  of  fourteen  years,  worked  out  in  great  detail  what  is 
known  as  the  Guenon  or  escutcheon  theory.  He  classified  cows  and 
bulls  into  ten  orders  and  each  of  these  again  into  four  grades,  depending 
on  the  size  and  shape  of  the  escutcheon.  To  each  of  these  orders  and 
grades  he  ascribed  certain  values.  He  also  attached  certain  values  to 
the  location  of  the  tufts,  ovals,  or  swirls  in  the  hair  on  the  thighs, 
making  seven  additional  classes  of  these.  Guenon  claimed  to  be  able 
to  tell  accurately  the  producing  ability  of  the  cow,  and  it  is  said  that 
in  tests  before  various  agricultural  societies  in  France  he  was  very 
successful  in  proving  his  theory.  The  escutcheon  theory  was  formerly 
highly  credited  by  many  dairymen,  and  in  rather  recent  years  at  least 


174  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

one  agricultural  college  published  a  score  card  for  dairy  cows  that  gave 
about  50  points  out  of  100  to  the  escutcheon. 

Modern  tests  have  found  this  theory  to  be  altogether  lacking  in 
accuracy.  At  the  present  time  most  score  cards  used  by  colleges  allow 
only  one  or  two  points  to  the  escutcheon.  Some  have  omitted  it  from 
consideration  altogether,  and  this  seems  entirely  justifiable,  as  the 
escutcheon  theory  may  be  rightly  regarded  as  a  quack  theory. 

The  quality  of  dairy  cows  is  shown  in  the  hide,  hair,  ear,  horn, 
head,  and  bone,  the  same  as  in  beef  cattle.  The  dairy  cow  has  a 
thinner  skin  than  the  beef  cow,  and  it  should  also  possess  a  maximum 
of  mellowness  and  oiliness.  An  oily  hide  is  something  of  an  evidence 
of  milk  rich  in  fat;  and  an  abundant  yellowish  secretion  about  the 
udder,  inside  the  thighs,  around  the  eyes,  inside  the  ears,  at  the  root 
of  the  tail,  and  below  any  spots  of  light-colored  hair  indicates  a  rich 
butter  color.  Opinions  differ  on  the  question  of  quality  in  dairy  cattle. 
Some  breeders  aim  at  a  very  rugged  type  having  great  constitution, 
medium  size  of  bone,  and  a  medium  thick  hide.  This  type  is  exempli- 
fied by  many  Holstein-Friesians  and  by  the  St.  Lambert  family  of 
Jerseys.  Other  breeders  desire  extreme  quality,  and  this  may  result 
in  some  delicacy  of  constitution.  Perhaps  this  type  is  best  illustrated 
by  what  is  known  as  the  "island  type"  of  Jersey,  which  is  the  type 
developed  in  the  native  home  of  the  breed  on  the  island  of  Jersey,  and 
also  fostered  by  many  breeders  of  Jersey  cattle  in  the  United  States. 
The  average  dairyman  will  be  wise  to  follow  a  course  midway  between 
the  two  extremes,  insisting  upon  constitution  first  and  then  upon  as 
much  quality  as  may  be  had  without  delicacy. 

The  temperament  is  of  much  importance.  Temperaments  are  of 
two  kinds — sanguine  and  lymphatic.  The  sanguine  temperament  is 
characterized  by  a  strong,  frequent  pulse,  firm  flesh,  and  active  move- 
ments. The  lymphatic  temperament  is  featured  by  a  rather  sluggish 
circulation,  fleshiness,  thicker  skin  and  coarser  hair,  slow  movements, 
and  quietness.  The  sanguine  temperament  is  possessed  in  marked 
degree  by  the  best  dairy  cattle,  while  beef  cattle  have  the  lymphatic 
temperament.  The  best  evidence  of  true  dairy  temperament  is  a  lean, 
angular  appearance  in  all  parts  of  the  animal.  A  dairy  bull,  a  young 
heifer,  or  a  dry  cow  may  show  some  degree  of  fleshiness  without  being 
seriously  faulted  for  it,  but  a  cow  well  advanced  in  a  lactation  period 
should  be  free  from  beefiness,  even  when  fed  to  the  limit  of  her  capacity. 
This  is  a  good  indication  that  she  is  an  economical  milk  producer. 

The  disposition  varies  greatly  in  different  individuals.  An  irrita- 
ble, kicking,  fence-jumping  cow  is  not  expected  to  make  much  of  a 
record  as  a  milk  and  butter-fat  producer.  She  uses  too  much  of  her 
energy  in  performance  that  has  no  market  value;  the  making  of  milk 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


175 


is  a  secondary  matter  with  her.  Such  cows  consume  Httle  feed  and 
exhibit  a  fastidious  appetite;  in  short,  they  are  not  useful  cattle,  there 
being  too  much  waste  of  energy  in  nervousness  and  bad  temper.  In 
contrast  to  such  cows  is  the  cow  that  never  moves  faster  than  a  walk 
and  is  gentle  and  easy  to  handle.  She  spends  lots  of  time  chewing  her 
cud  and  is  always  busy  making  milk.  She  is  a  useful,  profitable  cow, 
provided  she  has  the  conformation  which  enables  her  to  work  success- 
fully. The  irritable  cow  has  an  uneasy  and  wild  expression  of  the  eye, 
and  carries  her  head  high.  She  is  usually  switching  her  tail  whether 
it  is  fly-time  or  not.  Proper  disposition  is  indicated  by  a  calm  eye, 
and  by  carriage  of  the  poll  of  the  head  on  about  the  same  level  as  the 


Fig.  61. — An  inferior  dairy  cow.  Note  the  staggy  head,  coarse  neck,  uneven 
top  line,  small  barrel,  coarse  sloping  rump,  beefy  thighs,  and  small  funnel-shaped 
udder.     Her  wedge  from  the  side  view  points  the  wrong  way. 


withers.  If  the  head  is  carried  high  it  indicates  nervousness,  while  a 
head  carried  low  indicates  quietness  carried  to  the  extreme  of  sluggish- 
ness. 

The  size  of  dairy  cows  varies  between  wide  limits.  The  holders 
of  the  highest  records  in  milk  and  butter-fat  production  are  large  cows, 
which  is  a  condition  naturally  to  be  expected,  but  does  not  signify 
that  small  cows  are  necessarily  less  profitable.  The  dairyman  cares 
not  so  much  that  his  cows  are  large  and  hence  large  yielders,  as  that 
the  yield  be  made  economically;  he  studies  the  production  in  relation 


176  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

to  the  feed  consumed.  Small  cows  not  only  yield  less,  but  eat  less, 
and  may  be  as  profitable  as  large  cows.  The  latter  have  an  advantage 
in  that  they  can  profitably  consume  proportionately  more  roughage, 
and  fewer  of  them  need  be  kept  to  produce  a  given  quantity  of  milk, 
requiring  fewer  stalls  and  slightly  less  labor.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  calves  can  be  sold  at  a  profit,  the  herd  of  smaller  cows  will  realize 
more  income  from  this  source. 

The  Dairy  Bull 

The  features  of  dairy  type  as  they  apply  to  the  dairy  cow  having 
been  fully  discussed,  and  the  fundamental  points  of  dairy  type  having 
been  set  forth  in  that  connection,  the  requirements  for  the  bull  may  be 
presented  more  quickly.  In  form  the  bull  should  be  rather  long  and 
moderately  wide,  with  a  deep  rib,  moderate  length  of  leg,  and  rather 
angular  body.  His  build  should  insure  an  excellent  constitution, 
barrel  capacity,  strength  of  back,  style,  and  vigor,  with  no  indications 
of  coarseness  or  beefiness.  The  head  should  be  decidedly  masculine 
in  its  proportions  and  expression,  and  have  a  wide  muzzle,  large 
nostrils,  large,  bright  eyes  with  a  courageous  expression,  and  clean- 
cut  features.  In  all  breeds  except  the  Ayrshire,  the  masculine  head 
will  have  short,  stubby  horns.  The  neck  should  be  strong  and  the 
crest  heavily  developed. 

The  brisket  shows  more  width,  depth,  and  prominence  than  in 
the  cow,  in  keeping  with  a  masculine  development  of  the  forequarters. 
The  shoulders  are  deeper  and  more  heavily  developed,  but  should  not 
be  beefy.  The  withers  show  more  width  than  in  the  cow,  yet  tend  to 
be  fine  and  free  from  flesh.  The  front  legs  should  be  straight,  of  moder- 
ate length,  and  have  fair  width  between.  The  chest  should  be  moder- 
ately wide  and  very  deep.  The  back  should  be  moderately  wide, 
fairly  long,  and  carried  up  straight  and  strong.  The  top  line  of  the 
dairy  bull  usually  rises  higher  over  the  withers  and  neck  than  over  the 
back  and  loin,  and  the  first  impression  may  be  that  the  animal  is  sway- 
backed,  but  upon  further  study  the  observer  often  finds  he  has  been 
misled  by  the  rise  over  the  withers  and  crest.  No  marked  covering 
of  flesh  should  be  found  on  the  back,  and  the  backbone  should  be 
plainly  evident. 

The  loin  should  be  long,  level,  and  medium  wide.  The  barrel 
should  be  deep  and  well  developed,  but  need  not  show  as  much  capacity 
as  demanded  in  the  cow.  The  hips  are  only  moderately  wide,  the 
points  being  much  less  prominent  than  in  the  cow.  The  rump  should 
be  long,  level,  and  medium  wide.  The  thighs  may  be  slightly  heavier 
than  in  the  cow,  but  any  considerable  degree  of  thickness  is  sharply 
criticized.     Some  dairy  bulls  almost  rival  beef  bulls  in  the  amount  of 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


177 


fleshing  shown  in  the  hindquarters,  and  such  animals  are  distinctly 
not  of  true  dairy  type  in  conformation  and  temperament.  A  dairy 
bull  should  carry  no  more  fleshing  than  is  permissible  in  a  dry  cow  or 
in  a  heifer  before  her  first  calving.  The  bull  should  be  well  divided 
between  the  hind  legs,  and  should  have  rather  flat,  trim  thighs.  The 
hind  legs  should  be  placed  rather  well  apart,  and  should  be  straight 
and  of  medium  length. 

In  common  with  the  males  of  nearly  all  species  of  animals  classed 
as  mammals,  the  dairy  bull  has  miniature  teats  called  rudimentaries. 
These  are  located  in  front  and  on  each  side  of  the  scrotum,  there  being 


Fig.  62. — Excellent  type'in  the  dairy  bull.  Holstein-Friesian  bull,  Oak  DeKol 
Ollie  Homestead,  twice  champion  at  the  National  Dairy  Show.  Owned  by  lowana 
Farms,  Davenport,  Iowa.  Note  especially  his  strong  conformation,  good  head,  well 
defined  withers,  level  loin  and  rump,  long  quarters,  great  depth  of  rib,  and  strong 
constitution.  He  is  a  very  large,  rugged  bull  with  symmetry,  quality,  style,  mas- 
culinity, strength,  and  vigor. 

two  on  a  side.  They  vary  in  length  from  mere  buttons  to  an  inch  or 
more.  Some  persons  attach  much  significance  to  the  rudimentaries, 
believing  that  their  position  and  size  indicate  the  shape  and  capacity 
of  udder  which  will  be  shown  by  the  bull's  daughters.  It  is  not  es- 
tablished that  the  rudimentaries  really  have  such  a  significance,  and 
many  persons  give  them  no  attention  in  judging.  Dairy  bulls  also 
have  small  veins  on  the  belly  corresponding  to  the  large  milk-veins  of 
the  dairy  cow. 


178 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


The  quality  of  the  bull  is  very  important;  it  should  be  easily  ap- 
parent in  a  loose,  mellow  hide,  and  a  reasonable  degree  of  quality  is 
also  wanted  in  head  and  bone.  Coarseness  is  an  evidence  of  lack  of 
good  breeding.  In  disposition,  dairy  bulls  are  much  less  quiet  and 
trustworthy  than  beef  bulls,  often  being  ill-natured  and  sometimes 
unruly.  This  does  not  subject  them  to  criticism  unless  they  become 
dangerous  and  difficult  to  handle,  but  is  accepted  as  an  evidence  of 
masculinity. 

The  individuality  of  the  dairy  bull  is  certainly  somewhat  signifi- 
cant of  his  value,  but  it  reveals  less  of  the  animal's  ability  to  perform 
his  function  than  does  the  cow's  individuality  when  it  is  studied  in 


Fig.  63. — Excellent  type  in  the  dairy  bull.  Guernsey  bull,  Ladysmith's 
Cherub,  three  times  champion  at  the  National  Dairy  Show.  Owned  by  D.  D. 
Tenney,  Crystal  Bay,  Minn.  Note  his  masculine  head  and  neck,  great  length, 
good  depth,  strong  top,  and  long  level  rump,  and  his  style,  quality,  character,  and 
vigor. 


relation  to  function.  The  bull  is  only  valuable  as  a  progenitor  of  heifer 
calves  that  will  develop  into  heavy  milkers.  What  points,  therefore, 
in  the  individuality  of  the  bull  are  evidence  that  he  will  sire  high- 
producing  cows?  It  may  as  well  be  stated  first  as  last  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  determine  in  any  accurate  manner  from  the  bull's  individ- 
uality what  his  breeding  qualities,  as  they  relate  to  milk  flow,  will  be. 
There  are  far  more  reliable  sources  from  which  to  form  such  an  estimate 
and  these  will  be  discussed  later.     Nevertheless,  it  is  important  that 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  179 

the  dairy  bull  show  a  rugged  constitution,  ample  digestive  capacity, 
strength  of  conformation,  and  absence  of  beefiness,  these  being  essen- 
tial points  desired  in  his  female  offspring.  If  he  is  faulty  in  any  of 
these  respects,  we  may  reasonably  suppose  that  his  daughters  will  be 
similarly  deficient.  He  should  be  masculine  in  order  to  insure  potency. 
Having  all  these  points  of  individuality,  it  is  still  a  question  as  to  what 
sort  of  performance  may  be  expected  from  his  daughters. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE  SECRETION  OF  MILK 

Milk  is  secreted  by  the  mammary  glands  or  udder  of  the  female 
after  the  birth  of  young,  the  secretion  continuing  until  the  young  are 
mature  enough  to  live  on  ordinary  food.  All  animals  which  have 
mammary  glands  are  classed  as  mammals,  and  this  group  of  animals 
presents  wide  variations  in  the  number,  position,  capacity,  shape,  and 
prominence  of  the  glands.  The  mammary  glands  are  present  in  the 
male  in  rudimentary  condition,  although,  in  abnormal  cases,  milk  is 
secreted  by  males.  Milk  is  easily  digested  and  very  nutritious,  and 
no  food  for  the  young  animal  is  equal  to  its  mother's  milk.  The  highest 
development  of  the  udder  is  found  in  the  dairy  cow,  the  extreme 
development  having  been  largely  secured  by  careful  breeding;  the  lacta- 
tion period  has  become  prolonged,  and  the  daily  yield  and  quality  of 
milk  have  been  much  improved.  Cows  have  been  known  to  secrete 
over  150  pounds  of  milk  in  a  day,  their  own  weight  in  less  than  two 
weeks,  and  over  15  tons  in  a  year. 

Exterior  of  the  cow's  udder. — The  cow's  udder  consists  of  four 
mammary  glands,  usually  referred  to  as  the  "quarters,"  and  sometimes 
there  are  one  to  four  rudimentaries,  all  arranged  in  pairs  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  median  line  of  the  body.  The  udder  begins  a  few  inches 
behind  the  umbilicus  and  continues  backward  and  upward  between  the 
legs.  The  right  and  left  sides  are  divided  on  the  exterior  by  a  well- 
defined  line  or  groove,  but  the  line  of  separation  between  the  front  and 
rear  quarters  is  not  so  pronounced.  The  appearance  of  size  depends 
partly  upon  the  strength  and  shape  of  the  abdominal  wall ;  if  the  wall 
is  weak,  the  udder  is  forced  downward  and  backward  and  there  is  a 
seeming  increase  in  size.  This  sometimes  accounts  for  the  apparently 
sudden  development  of  a  large  udder  after  the  second  or  third  calving. 
The  skin  covering  the  udder  is  very  thin  and  elastic,  and  the  hair  is 
finer,  softer,  and  shorter  than  on  other  parts  of  the  animal.  The  skin 
covering  the  teats  bears  little  or  no  hair,  and  is  often  of  a  darker  color 
than  upon  other  parts. 

Structure  of  the  cow's  udder. — When  dissected,  the  right  and  left 
halves  of  the  udder  are  found  to  be  enveloped  in  strong,  fibrous  capsules. 
The  fibers  of  the  two  capsules  intermingle  somewhat,  and  are  prolonged 
upward  to  the  median  line  of  the  body  to  form  a  ligamentous  support 
and  partition,  the  two  halves  thus  being  made  distinct.  The  quarters 
on  each  side  are  not  so  distinctly  separated,  there  being  no  such  well- 

180 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


181 


developed  partition  as  between  the  halves,  nor  can  the  line  of  separation 
be  seen  unless  the  tissues  are  stained.  Dr.  A.  W.  Bitting  of  the  Indiana 
Experiment  Station  injected  different  colored  liquids  through  the  teats 
and  found  that  the  liquids  did  not  leave  the  quarter,  his  investigation 
showing  that  a  rather  distinct  transverse  partition  exists.  It  follows 
that  milk  drawn  from  any  teat  must  be  produced  in  its  quarter,  al- 
though there  is  slight  communication  between  the  smaller  ducts  in  the 
upper  parts  of  the  two  quarters  on  a  side.  Between  the  quarters  of 
the  same  half,  the  capsule  sends  off  a  rather  incomplete  transverse 
partition  common  to  both,  and  there  are  numerous  other  reflections 


Fig.  64. — Cross-section  of  cow's  udder,  a,  Body  of  gland;  b,  milk  cistern; 
c,  cavity  of  teat;  d,  duct  of  teat;  e,  inter-mammary  groove;  f,  septum  between  glands; 
g,  supramammary  fat. 

of  the  capsule  inward  from  all  sides  to  serve  as  a  supporting  framework 
for  the  gland  tissue  and  to  form  the  milk  cisterns  and  ducts. 

Structure  of  the  teat. — The  tissues  of  the  capsule  are  prolonged 
downward,  becoming  greatly  thickened,  to  form  the  walls  of  the  teats. 
The  teat  is  cylindrical  or  conical  in  shape,  variable  in  length  and 
diameter,  and  placed  at  the  lowest  portion  of  the  gland.  Its  shape  and 
size  are  independent  of  the  size  of  the  gland.  It  is  very  elastic  and  is 
covered  with  a  tough,  close-fitting,  thin  skin.     Through  its  center  runs 


182  Types  and  Maricet  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

a  duct  called  the  "teat-canal,"  having  a  capacity,  when  distended,  of 
from  1  to  11  2  ounces  in  moderate-sized  teats.  There  are  both  circular 
and  longitudinal  muscle  fibers,  and  at  the  lower  end  the  circular  fibers 
form  an  involuntary  sphincter  muscle,  the  function  of  which  is  to  keep 
the  teat-canal  closed  under  ordinary  pressure.  At  the  upper  end  of 
the  teat  is  another  involuntary  sphincter  muscle,  but  it  does  not  com- 
pletely close  the  canal,  and  sometimes  a  third  is  found  farther  above. 
The  sphincters  are  sometimes  so  relaxed  that  very  slight  pressure  is 
sufficient  to  open  them,  and  the  cow  leaks  her  milk;  of  other  cows  the 
reverse  is  true,  making  them  hard  milkers. 

The  milk -cistern,  ducts,  and  alveoli. — Above  the  teat  is  a  reservoir, 
called  the  "milk-cistern,"  seldom  holding  more  than  half  a  pint. 
This  cistern  is  divided  into  pockets  of  various  sizes  into  which  the  large 
milk-ducts  empty.  At  the  point  of  entrance  of  these  ducts  are  sphincter 
muscles,  and  while  they  cannot  entirely  close  the  openings,  they  may 
very  nearly  do  so,  and  in  this  way  the  cow  is  enabled  to  "hold  up  her 
milk."  These  large  ducts  ramify  to  all  parts  of  the  gland  and  anasto- 
mose (intercommunicate)  freely;  and  at  the  intersections  are  still  other 
voluntary  sphincter  muscles.  A  strong  effort  on  the  part  of  the  cow 
is  required  to  close  the  larger  ducts  in  the  lower  part  of  the  udder,  but 
a  slight  effort  will  close  the  smaller  canals  further  up  in  the  glands. 
Cows  differ  greatly  in  their  control  over  these  muscles  and  in  their 
disposition  to  exert  it.  The  most  common  causes  of  holding  up  milk 
are  fright,  the  presence  of  strangers  in  the  stable,  lack  of  familiarity 
with  surroundings,  irregularity  in  the  time  or  manner  of  feeding  or 
milking,  and  sexual  heat.  With  some  cows  it  becomes  a  habit,  much 
injuring  the  usefulness  and  milking  capacity  of  the  animal.  The  large 
ducts  subdivide  into  smaller  ducts,  and  these  again  into  smaller  ones, 
until  they  terminate  in  groups  of  small  sac-like  bodies  known  as  the 
"ultimate  follicles,"  "acini,"  or  "alveoli."  The  teat-canal,  milk-cis- 
tern, and  ducts  are  lined  with  columnar  epithelium. 

The  alveolus  (plural,  alveoli)  is  the  sacculated  distention  found 
in  groups  of  three  to  five  on  the  end  of  the  minute  milk-ducts.  It  is 
the  essential  part  of  the  gland.  It  is  lined  by  a  single  layer  of  epithelial 
cells  which  are  especially  concerned  in  milk  production.  The  alveolus 
is  only  1-30  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  its  cavity  is  from  1-250  to  1-100 
of  an  inch  in  length  and  from  1-1,300  to  1-800  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
New  ducts  and  alveoli  may  be  formed  up  to  about  the  fifth  or  sixth 
year,  thereby  increasing  the  producing  capacity  of  the  cow. 

The  entire  gland  may  be  compared  to  a  large  bunch  of  grapes; 
the  main  duct  of  the  gland  branches  very  much  as  the  stem  of  the 
bunch  of  grapes  branches;  and  just  as  the  branches  and  sub-branches 
of  the  stem  lead  to  the  grapes,  so  the  branches  of  the  duct  lead  to  the 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


183 


alveoli  of  the  gland.  If  we  pack  the  bunch  of  grapes  in  a  small  basket 
of  sawdust,  so  that  the  sawdust  fills  up  loosely  the  spaces  between  the 
individual  grapes  and  the  branches  of  the  stem,  we  may  develop  our 
comparison  further;  the  sawdust  stands  for  the  connective  tissue  in 
which  the  ducts  and  alveoli  are  embedded,  and  the  basket  stands  for 
the  capsule. 

The  arterial  circulation. — The  mammary  glands  are  abundantly 
supplied  with  blood.  The  blood  leaves  the  heart  through  the  posterior 
aorta,  common  iliacs,  and  external  iliac,  which  carry  backward  to  the 
region  of  the  hips.  The  external  iliac  there  divides  into  two  arteries, 
one  of  which,  the  prepubic,  divides  into  the  two  pudic  arteries,  the 
external  one  of  which  passes  down  the  thigh  and  gives  off  a  branch, 
known  as  the  mammary  artery,  which  enters  the  top  of  the  udder  from 


Fig.  65. — Where  milk  is  made.     Group  of  alveoli,     a,  Duct;  b,  capillary  net- 
work; c,  alveoli;  d,  epithelial  cells;  e,  fibrous  tissue. 

the  rear.  The  mammary  artery  has  four  large  branches,  one  for  each 
quarter  of  the  udder,  and  there  is  also  a  small  branch  for  each  rudi- 
mentary gland.  The  large  branches  subdivide  within  the  gland  tissue. 
The  venous  circulation  is  more  complex  than  the  arterial.  The 
blood  is  collected  from  the  capillaries  by  from  14  to  17  large  veins 
which  empty  into  the  mammary  vein  running  parallel  with  the  mam- 
mary artery  at  the  top  of  the  udder.  The  mammary  vein  is  divided 
into  two  parts  which  encircle  the  top  of  the  udder  and  connect  in  front 
and  behind  like  a  rope  tied  around  it.  From  this  circuit  of  veins  the 
blood  returns  to  the  heart  by  two  routes.  One  route  leads  out  to  the 
rear  of  the  udder,  then  up  to  the  region  of  the  hips,  and  thence  to  the 
vena  cava  and  the  heart,  the  veins  along  the  route  being  parallel  to 


184 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


the  arteries  through  which  the  blood  came,  and  being  similarly  named. 
The  other  route  is  already  familiar,  leading  out  in  front  of  the  udder 
through  the  large  subcutaneous  abdominal  veins  (milk- veins)  which 
pass  through  the  chest  wall  and  become  a  part  of  the  internal  thoracic 
vein,  reaching  the  heart  by  way  of  the  anterior  vena  cava.  The  direc- 
tion of  the  blood  in  the  encircling  veins  at  the  top  of  the  udder  is  de- 
termined by  the  valves  in  the  vessels.  The  larger  volume  of  blood 
passes  through  the  milk-veins,  thus  bringing  them  into  great  promi- 
nence. During  pregnancy,  the  pressure  of  the  uterus  tends  to  interfere 
with  the  circulation  through  the  posterior  vessels,  and  this  tends  to 
further  increase  the  size  of  the  milk-veins.  Inasmuch  as  the  blood 
may  return  to  the  heart  posteriorly,  it  is  possible  that  a  high  producer 


Fig.  66. — Circulation  to  and  from  the  udder.  The  broken  lines  represent  the 
arteries  which  carry  blood  containing  the  nutritive  material  to  the  udder  where  it 
is  manufactured  into  milk.  The  heavy  black  lines  represent  the  veins  which  carry 
the  blood  back  to  the  heart.  Note  that  there  is  but  one  route  from  the  heart  to  the 
udder,  whereas  there  are  two  routes  from  the  udder  to  the  heart.  M.  V.,  milk-vein; 
M.  W.,  milk-well. 


may  have  small  milk-veins,  but  this  is  not  likely  to  occur.  Cows  with 
large  milk-veins  are  large  producers,  and  cows  with  small  milk-veins 
may  be  large  producers. 

Nature  and  composition  of  milk. — Cow's  milk  is  an  opaque,  yellow- 
ish-white fluid  devoid  of  odor  except  for  a  short  time  after  its  extraction. 
When  fresh,  it  is  slightly  sweet  and  has  a  slightly  alkaline  reaction. 
Under  the  microscope,  milk  is  found  to  be  a  fine  emulsion  of  fat,  a 
quart  of  milk  being  estimated  to  contain  2,000,000,000,000  fat  globules, 
and  the  cow  that  gives  two  gallons  of  milk  per  day  must  therefore 
secrete  at  the  rate  of  over  175,000,000  fat  globules  per  second.     The 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  185 

composition  of  milk  varies  a  great  deal;  there  are  differences  between 
breeds,  differences  between  individuals,  and  differences  in  the  milk 
from  the  same  cow  at  different  times.  As  lactation  advances,  the 
daily  milk  yield  decreases,  but  the  percentage  of  fat  constantly  increases 
as  does  the  percentage  of  all  solids.  The  specific  gravity  of  average 
milk  is  1.032  and  its  composition  is  as  follows: 

(Water  87  per  cent 

if  Ash  .7  per  cent 

[Solids  not  I  Casein     2.7  per  cent 

fat  9.1  per  cent        1  Albumin    .7  per  cent 
Solids  13  per  cent     ]  [Sugar       5.0  per  cent 

[Fat  3.9  per  cent 

The  results  of  various  American  experiments  indicate  that  the 
average  composition  of  the  milk  of  the  various  breeds  is  as  follows: 

Breeds  Solids  Fat 

Per  cent         Per  cent 

Jersey 14.70  5.35 

Guernsey 14.71  5.16 

Shorthorn 13.38  4.05 

Ayrshire 12.61  3.66 

Holstein-Friesian 11.85  3.42 

The  quantity  of  milk  given  by  the  different  breeds  is  almost  in- 
versely proportional  to  the  fat  content,  so  that  the  total  quantity  of 
solids  and  fat  is  nearly  the  same  for  all  dairy  breeds.  The  highest 
average  percentage  of  fat  in  a  regular  milking  that  has  been  reported 
is  10.7,  and  the  cow  did  not  give  milk  of  this  richness  regularly.  In  a 
few  cases,  tests  showing  9  per  cent  have  been  made  and  it  is  only  rarely 
that  a  cow  averages  7  per  cent. 

Secretion  of  milk. — The  udder  is  a  true  organ  of  secretion.  Milk 
is  not  merely  strained  from  the  blood,  but  contains  substances  not 
found  in  the  blood,  these  being  formed  in  the  gland  itself.  Surrounding 
the  alveoli  are  capillaries,  and  through  the  walls  of  the  capillaries  the 
fluids  of  the  blood  pass  freely  into  the  cavity  of  the  alveoli  by  osmosis. 
At  the  same  time,  the  epithelial  cells  lining  the  alveoli  are  the  seat  of 
secretory  activities  which  produce  some  of  the  most  important  con- 
stituents of  the  milk.  Thus  milk  is  formed  partly  from  the  osmosis  of 
blood  serum  and  white  blood  corpuscles  directly  into  the  cavity  of  the 
alveolus,  and  partly  by  a  chemical  elaboration  by  the  epithelial  cells. 
The  water  from  the  blood  serum  passes  out  of  the  alveolus,  carrying 
with  it  some  of  the  mineral  constituents  of  the  blood  in  solution,  and 
a  part  of  the  albumin  of  the  blood  serum.  During  its  passage  from 
the  capillaries  to  the  cavity  of  the  alveolus,  by  far  the  larger  part  of 
the  albumin  of  the  blood  is  changed  by  the  epithelial  cells  to  the  casein 
of  milk.  These  cells  also  secrete  globules  of  fat,  having  an  average 
diameter  of  about  0.0001  of  an  inch.     Small  amounts  of  fat  may  also 


186  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

be  carried  over  directly  by  the  blood  and  appear  in  the  milk  without 
change.  Only  minute  quantities  of  sugar  are  found  in  the  blood,  hence 
milk-sugar  is  no  doubt  also  elaborated  by  the  secretory  cells  of  the 
udder. 

Milk  secretion  is  not  perfectly  understood  in  all  its  details.  In 
some  of  its  phases,  milk  secretion  is  undoubtedly  a  continuous  process, 
but  the  agitation  of  the  udder  at  milking  time  seems  to  be  very  essential 
in  completing  the  process  of  milk  manufacture.  Between  milkings, 
the  udder  is  engaged  in  certain  important  preliminary  steps  which 
make  possible  the  rapid  culmination  of  the  act  of  secretion  when  the 
stimulus  afforded  by  agitation  is  given.  (The  theory  that  milk  secre- 
tion is  largely  the  result  of  cell  growth,  division,  and  degeneration,  is 
no  longer  held  by  leading  physiologists.) 

If  an  udder  is  cut  open  just  before  milking  time,  it  is  found  that 
the  milk-cisterns  and  ducts  are  distended  with  milk  containing  a  very 
low  per  cent  of  butter-fat.  The  quantity  of  this  milk  is  only  a  small 
part  of  the  total  yield  which  the  cow  would  give  at  a  milking.  Agita- 
tion of  the  udder  is  necessary  to  complete  the  process  of  secretion. 
Observation  of  a  calf,  lamb,  or  kitten  when  nursing  shows  that  con- 
siderable agitation  is  a  prominent  feature  of  nature's  method  of  milking. 
Under  this  stim.ulus  the  water  of  the  blood  rushes  through  the  walls 
of  the  alveoli  and  carries  the  butter-fat,  which  has  been  manufactured 
by  the  epithelial  cells,  down  into  the  milk-ducts  and  cisterns,  and 
finally  through  the  teats.  Other  products  of  secretion,  namely  casein 
and  lactose  (milk-sugar),  are  brought  down  also.  The  last  milk  drawn 
from  the  udder  is  the  richest  in  fat;  in  one  experiment,  four  successive 
samples  taken  during  the  course  of  milking  tested  0.76,  2.60,  5.35,  and 
9.80  per  cent  of  fat  respectively.  ^  A  similar  test  conducted  in  1921 
by  15  members  of  the  McGregor  (Iowa)  Cow  Testing  Association  is 
reported  ^  to  have  given  an  average  of  1.79  per  cent  of  butter-fat  in 
the  fore  milk  and  9.6  per  cent  in  the  strippings.  These  were  averages 
for  the  cows  on  the  15  farms.  On  one  farm  the  strippings  tested  14.5 
per  cent  and  on  another  farm  12.8  per  cent. 

Experiments  made  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  in 
manipulating  the  udders  of  cows,  after  the  regular  milkings,  resulted 
in  bringing  down  considerable  milk  very  rich  in  butter-fat.  It  was 
estimated  that  if  the  udders  of  the  million  cows  in  Wisconsin  at  that 
time  were  manipulated  after  the  customary  operation  of  milking,  and 
if  butter-fat  is  worth  only  20  cents  per  pound,  the  value  of  the  extra 
product  would  amount  to  $6  per  head  annually,  or  $6,000,000  for  all 
the  cows  in  the  state. 


iJohn  W.  Decker:  Elements  of  Dairying,  p.  38. 
^Chicago  Daily  Drovers  Journal,  Aug.  1,  1921. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  187 

Colostrum. — Because  of  more  or  less  incompleteness  of  the  various 
processes  of  secretion  at  the  start  of  the  lactation  period,  the  first  milk 
differs  in  composition  from  that  afterwards  secreted,  and  is  called 
colostrum.  It  is  thick  and  viscous,  contains  less  water  than  normal 
milk,  five  times  as  much  albumin,  twice  as  much  ash,  slightly  more  fat, 
and  about  one-half  the  usual  percentage  of  sugar.  It  has  a  laxative 
effect  on  the  calf,  useful  in  properly  starting  the  work  of  digestion. 
In  about  one  week  following  birth,  the  yield  of  milk  usually  increases 
and  becomes  normal  in  composition. 

Stimuli  to  secretion. — The  cow  has  no  control  over  the  secretion 
of  milk,  it  being  involuntary.  During  the  latter  part  of  pregnancy, 
the  embryo  calf  makes  very  rapid  growth,  and  the  blood  supply  to  the 
placenta  is  much  increased.  At  that  time  the  cow  does  not  ordinarily 
secrete  milk,  her  excess  of  energy  being  given  to  the  growth  of  the 
embryo.  When  the  calf  is  born,  the  demand  through  the  placenta 
ceases,  and  the  large  volume  of  blood  is  turned  toward  the  udder.  A 
short  time  previous  to  calving,  the  udder  of  the  cow  shows  considerable 
increase  in  size,  and  by  the  time  the  calf  is  born  the  mammary  glands 
are  fulfilling  their  function  nearly  to  the  maximum  capacity.  In 
young  heifers  that  have  never  had  a  calf,  the  udder  contains  a  watery, 
saline  fluid.  Regular  attempts  at  milking,  or  manipulation  of  the 
udder  with  the  hands,  or  allowing  a  calf  to  suck,  may  stimulate  the 
secretion  of  considerable  normal  milk  in  such  young  heifers.  The 
same  methods  have  been  known  to  cause  the  secretion  of  a  milk-like 
fluid  by  the  rudimentary  glands  of  males.  Thorough  milking  furnishes 
a  stimulus  that  causes  prolongation  of  the  lactation  period,  while  incom- 
plete removal  of  milk  tends  to  check  the  secretion  and  shorten  the 
milking  period,  and  it  may  also  cause  serious  inflammation.  Frequent 
milkings  tend  to  increase  the  flow  of  milk,  but  there  is  no  special  ad- 
vantage in  milking  more  often  than  twice  a  day  unless  the  cow  is  a 
high  producer  and  the  udder  becomes  very  much  distended  between 
milkings,  as  such  distention  acts  as  a  check  to  further  secretion.  Reg- 
ularity in  milking  is  essential  to  best  results,  both  in  the  amount 
secreted  per  day  and  in  the  length  of  the  lactation  period. 


CHAPTER  XII 
VARIATIONS  IN  THE  USEFULNESS  OF  DAIRY  COWS 

Census  reports  and  government  estimates  indicate  that  the  average 
cow  kept  for  milk  production  in  the  United  States  produces  about 
4,000  pounds  of  milk  per  year.  If  this  milk  tests  4  per  cent  fat,  the 
average  dairy  cow  produces  about  160  pounds  of  butter-fat  annually. 
Assuming  that  average  butter  contains  85  per  cent  of  butter-fat,  the 
average  American  dairy  cow  may  be  credited  with  about  188  pounds 
of  butter  per  year. 

The  United  States  holds  seventh  place  among  15  prominent  coun- 
tries in  the  average  yield  of  milk  per  dairy  cow,  being  excelled  by  the 
Netherlands  with  7,585  pounds  yearly  per  cow,  Switzerland  6,950 
pounds,  Great  Britain  5,934  pounds,  Denmark  5,666  pounds,  Germany 
4,350  pounds,  and  Canada  3,779  pounds.  Our  own  average  per  cow 
is  reported  at  3,716  pounds  in  1917  and  3,627  pounds  in  1920.  ^ 

Extremely  wide  variations  occur  in  the  production  and  profit  re- 
turned by  dairy  cows. 

Relation  of  production  to  net  income. — J.  C.  McDowell  of  the 
Dairy  Division  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  tabulated  5,587 
yearly  records  of  cows  owned  by  members  of  cow-testing  associations 
in  various  parts  of  the  country.  These  records  covered  a  period  of 
four  years.  He  states  ^  that  as  the  average  butter-fat  production  per 
cow  increased  from  150  to  200  pounds,  the  income  per  cow  over  cost 
of  feed  advanced  from  $21  to  $34.  Thus  a  gain  of  50  pounds,  or  SSVs 
per  cent,  in  production  gave  an  increase  of  62  per  cent  in  income  over 
feed  cost.  He  states  that  when  the  production  of  150  pounds  was 
doubled,  income  over  feed  cost  was  tripled;  and  when  production  was 
tripled,  income  over  feed  cost  was  multiplied  five  times.  The  following 
table  summarizes  the  results  of  his  study: 

Relation  of  butter-fat  production  to  income  over  cost  of  feed.     Average  results,  from  5,587 
records  of  iO  cow-testing  associations 


Average 

Average 

Average  annual 

income 

Average  annual 

income 

production  of 

over  cost 

production  of 

over  cost 

butter-fat 

of  feed 

butter-fat 

of  feed 

100  pounds $  5.00  350  pounds $74.00 

150  pounds 21.00  400  pounds 87.00 

200  pounds 34.00  450  pounds 100.00 

250  pounds 50.00  500  pounds 118.00 

300  pounds 63.00 


^T.  R.  Pirtle:  A  Handbook  of  Dairy  Statistics,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1922. 
-Butterfat  and  Income,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1917,  pp.  357,  358. 

188 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


189 


McDowell  points  out  that  if  no  expenses  except  cost  of  feed  are 
considered,  1  cow  that  produced  450  pounds  of  butter-fat  a  year  would 
have  returned  as  much  net  income  as  20  cows  with  an  average  produc- 
tion of  100  pounds,  and  had  all  expenses  been  considered,  the  results 
would  have  been  even  more  striking.  He  found  that  the  cost  of 
roughage  was  about  the  same  for  all  groups,  regardless  of  production. 
The  cost  of  grain  was  considerably  higher  for  the  more  productive  cows, 
but  it  was  much  lower  per  pound  of  butter-fat  produced.  The  in- 
creased income  from  the  higher  producers  should  be  credited  in  part  to 
better  feeding,  but  it  was  evidently  more  largely  due  to  better  cows. 

Mention  is  made  of  one  herd  of  91  cows  that  in  one  year  produced 
a  total  income  of  $58  over  cost  of  feed,  or  6U  cents  per  cow.  One  reason- 
ably good  cow  can  easily  surpass  the  record  of  this  entire  herd,  and 
how  much  easier  it  is  to  feed  1  cow  than  91,  and  how  much  easier  and 
cheaper  it  is  to  handle  and  milk  1  cow  than  91!  And  it  so  happened 
that  another  member  of  the  same  testing  association  owned  16  cows 
that  averaged  306  pounds  of  butter-fat  and  $75  over  cost  of  feed. 

Tests  of  purebred  dairy  cows  were  conducted  at  the  Pan-American 
Exposition  at  Buffalo  in  1901  and  at  the  Louisiana-Purchase  Exposition 
at  St.  Louis  in  1904.  In  a  six-months  test  at  Buffalo,  the  least  profit- 
able cow  gave  an  average  return  over  feed  cost  of  6.4  cents  daily,  and 
the  most  profitable  cow  returned  33  cents  over  feed  cost  daily,  or  5 
times  as  much.  At  St.  Louis  in  a  120-day  test  the  least  profitable  cow 
returned  1.6  cents  over  feed  cost  daily,  and  the  most  profitable  cow 
returned  42.1  cents,  or  25  times  as  much. 

High  producers  consume  much  more  feed  than  low  producers,  but 
they  produce  much  more  milk  and  butter-fat  per  pound  of  feed.  This 
is  shown  by  the  following  table  ^  which  covers  careful,  complete  yearly 
records  for  five  years  on  four  farms  located  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
Pennsylvania,  and  North  Carolina: 

Relation  of  yield  and  feed  cost,  per  cow,  to  feed  cost  per  1 00  pounds  of  milk  produced 


Number 
of  cows 

Feed  cost 

Pounds  of  milk 

annual 

yield 

Pounds 

Per  cow 

yearly 

Per  100 

pounds 

milk 

3,000  and  under 

16 
33 

78 

111 

109 

60 

36 

2,349 

3,648 
4,596 
5,450 
6,445 
7,514 
9,049 

$43.93 
49.47 
55.00 
59.91 
62.85 
70.38 
80.45 

$1.87 

3,001  to  4,000 

1.36 

4,001  to  5,000 

1.20 

5,001  to  6,000 

1.10 

6,001  to  7,000 

.98 

7,001  to  8,000 

.94 

8,001  and  over 

.89 

ij.  S.  Gates:  Some  Outstanding  Factors  in  Profitable  Farming,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.  Yearbook,  1915,  p.  117. 


190  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Note  that  the  feed  bill  was  about  twice  as  high  for  the  best  cows 
as  for  the  poorest  ones.  But  the  best  cows  produced  nearly  four  times 
as  much  milk  as  the  poorest  cows,  and  their  feed  bill  per  100  pounds  of 
milk  was  less  than  half  that  of  the  poorest  group.  High-producing 
animals  consume  much  more  feed  than  low  producers,  hut  it  pays  to  feed 
them  with  a  liberal  hand. 

Records  of  the  champions  in  production. — The  highest  records  in 
milk  and  butter-fat  production  are  useful  in  showing  the  possibilities 
in  the  breeding,  feeding,  and  management  of  dairy  cattle.  Sometimes 
these  records  are  made  regardless  of  economy  in  production,  no  expense 
being  spared  to  give  the  cow  every  opportunity  to  make  a  high  record ; 
sometimes  they  have  been  secured  at  the  expense  of  the  cow's  future 
usefulness,  her  constitution  being  undermined  and  her  digestion  per- 
manently deranged  by  the  forcing  methods  that  are  practiced.  The 
value  of  such  records  is  sometimes  over-estimated,  but  they  clearly 
indicate  that  the  average  dairy  cow  of  the  United  States  with  her 
annual  production  of  about  4,000  pounds  of  milk  and  about  160  pounds 
of  butter-fat  has  plenty  of  room  for  improvement. 

Following  are  the  highest  records  made  in  official  yearly  tests  of 
the  various  dairy  breeds  in  the  United  States: 


Holstein-Friesians 

Year 

Cow 

state 

Production 

1922 
1920 

May  Walker  OUie  Homestead              Minnesota 
Segis  Pietertje  Prospect                         Washington 

1,218.58  lbs.  fat 
37,381.4    lbs.  milk 

Jerseys 

1923 
1922 

Darling's  Jolly  Lassie 
Fauvic's  Star 

Oregon 
Connecticut 

Guernseys 

1,141.28  lbs.  fat 
20,616.0    lbs.  milk 

1920 
1915 

Countess  Prue 
Murne  Cowan 

Massachusetts 
Ohio 

Ayrshires 

1,103.28  lbs.  fat 
24,008.0    lbs.  milk 

1915 
1915 

Lily  of  Willowmoor 
Garclaugh  May  Mischief 

Washington 
Pennsylvania 

Brown  Swiss 

955.56  lbs.  fat 
25,329.0    lbs.  milk 

1922 
1922 

Hawthorn  Dairy  Maid 
Hawthorn  Dairy  Maid 

Illinois 
Illinois 

927.23  lbs.  fat 
22,622.6    lbs.  milk 

An  Ayrshire  cow,  Crocus,  is  reported  to  have  given  over  45  tons 
of  milk  during  her  17  years  of  life.  Another  Ayrshire  cow,  Annie  Bert, 
is  reported  to  have  given  over  45  tons  of  milk  during  twelve  lactation 
periods.  She  also  had  a  record  of  nearly  2  tons  of  butter.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Missouri  had  a  Jersey  cow,  Hope  of  Ramapo,  that  in  17  years 
produced  78,585  pounds  of  milk,  4,147  pounds  of  butter,  and  15  calves, 
thus  bringing  $1,341.72  into  the  treasury.  The  noted  Jersey  cow, 
Jacoba  Irene,  in  37  months  produced  42,373  pounds  of  milk  and  2,331 
pounds  of  butter-fat.    Another  noted  Jersey,  Sophie  19th  of  Hood 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  191 

Farm,  in  6  years  produced  75,920  pounds  of  milk  and  4,353  pounds  of 
fat,  and  in  10  years  her  production  of  butter-fat  totaled  6,958  pounds. 
Lily  of  Willowmoor,  an  Ayrshire  owned  in  the  state  of  Washington, 
produced  84,991  pounds  of  milk  and  3,362  pounds  of  fat  in  5  years. 
The  Holstein  cow  Tilly  Alcartra,  owned  in  California,  produced  in  6 
years  a  total  of  156,776  pounds  of  milk  and  4,910  pounds  of  fat,  and  in 
8  years  her  total  butter-fat  production  amounted  to  6,250  pounds. 
Vive  La  France,  a  Jersey  owned  in  Oregon,  recently  completed  her 
sixth  official  test  with  14,441  pounds  of  milk  and  917  pounds  of  fat. 
Her  six  yearly  records  total  78,461  pounds  of  milk  and  5,332  pounds 
of  fat,  the  highest  record  to  date  in  butter-fat  production  during  6 
consecutive  lactation  periods. 

Cause  of  wide  variation  in  production — C.  H.  Eckles,  formerly  of 
the  Missouri  Station,  ^  determined  why  dairy  cows  vary  so  widely  in 
production  and  profit.  Two  cows  in  the  station  herd  showing  striking 
difference  in  ability  were  selected  for  the  investigation.  They  were 
registered  Jerseys,  sired  by  the  same  bull,  from  dams  distantly  related, 
and  they  had  been  raised  under  practically  the  same  conditions.  The 
following  table  gives  the  facts  regarding  these  two  cows  during  the 
first  two  milking  periods  prior  to  the  investigation: 

Name Pedro's  Ramaposa       Pedro's  Elf 

Date  of  birth Sept.  4,  1902  May  11,  1903 

Age  at  first  calving 29  mo.  18  mo. 

Pounds  milk,  first  lactation  period 4,552  878 

Pounds  fat,  first  lactation  period 238.8  44.1 

Number  of  days  in  milk 337  131 

Pounds  milk,  second  lactation  period 7,174  3,189 

Pounds  fat,  second  lactation  period 377  114.8 

Number  of  days  in  milk 365  232 

During  these  two  lactation  periods,  Pedro's  Ramaposa  produced 
2.8  pounds  of  milk  and  3.9  pounds  of  fat  for  each  pound  produced  by 
Pedro's  Elf.  While  the  second  milking  period  was  in  progress,  an 
investigation  was  planned  to  determine  the  cause  of  this  difference  in 
efficiency  as  dairy  cows.  The  cows  were  therefore  bred  so  that  the 
calves  might  be  born  as  near  the  same  time  as  possible;  Pedro's  Elf 
calved  October  4,  1907,  and  Pedro's  Ramaposa  calved  October  7. 

Complete  records  were  kept  of  the  amount  and  composition  of  the 
feeds  consumed.  Each  cow  was  fed  a  ration  of  the  same  composition 
at  all  times,  but  the  amount  was  varied  to  suit  the  individual.  As 
there  was  a  possibility  of  the  inferior  cow  using  part  of  her  feed  for 
depositing  fat  on  her  body — a  characteristic  of  inferior  dairy  cows- 
each  cow  was  fed  such  an  amount  as  would  keep  her  at  a  uniform  body 
weight.  Thus  the  feed  consumed  could  be  studied  in  relation  to  dairy 
qualities  only.     They  were  fed  all  they  would  consume,  unless  they  be- 

iMo.  Res.  Bui.  2. 


192  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

gan  to  lay  on  flesh  and  gain  in  weight.  The  refused  feed  was  collected, 
analyzed,  and  deducted  from  the  records.  Complete  records  were  kept 
of  the  milk  produced  and  of  its  composition.  The  same  man  always 
milked  both  cows.  In  order  to  eliminate  another  disturbing  factor 
from  such  an  experiment,  the  cows  were  kept  farrow;  had  they  carried 
calves,  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  have  accurately  measured  the 
feed  requirements  for  milk  production.  A  digestion  trial  was  con- 
ducted when  the  cows  were  at  their  maximum  production  to  ascertain 
whether  any  difference  existed  in  the  efficiency  of  digestion. 

At  the  end  of  the  milking  period  the  cows  were  kept  farrow  and 
the  same  ration  was  fed  as  during  the  milking  period ;  this  was  continued 
for  90  days,  the  feeding  being  so  regulated  in  quantity  as  to  maintain 
the  cows  at  a  uniform  body  weight.  In  this  way  the  requirement  for 
maintenance  was  determined  for  each  cow.  A  maintenance  ration  is 
one  that  will  maintain  a  resting  animal  at  a  uniform  body  weight; 
such  a  ration  keeps  up  the  body  heat,  makes  repairs  in  the  tissues,  and 
furnishes  energy  for  the  working  of  the  heart,  lungs,  digestive  and 
other  organs,  and  for  slight  movements  of  the  body.  If  the  dairy  cow 
is  pregnant,  she  requires  enough  feed  above  maintenance  to  furnish 
nourishment  for  the  foetus.  Still  more  feed  in  excess  of  maintenance 
is  necessary  if  she  is  giving  milk  as  well  as  carrying  a  calf.  Cows  vary 
somewhat  in  their  maintenance  requirements,  hence  two  cows  con- 
suming the  same  amounts  of  feed  may  have  different  proportions  of 
their  feed  available  for  milk  production.  For  instance,  a  restless  cow 
has  a  greater  maintenance  requirement  than  a  quiet  one;  when  standing 
up,  more  feed  is  required  for  maintenance  than  when  lying  down. 
Many  other  factors  affect  the  requirement  for  maintenance.  It  is 
therefore  apparent  that  an  investigation  into  the  cause  of  difference  s 
in  the  economy  of  production  is  not  complete  unless  the  requirement 
for  maintenance  is  determined.  This  the  Missouri  Station  did  by 
finding  how  much  feed  was  necessary  to  maintain  each  cow  at  a  con- 
stant body  weight  while  dry  and  farrow.  Other  experiments  have 
shown  that  a  well-fed  dairy  cow  uses  about  43  per  cent  of  her  feed  for 
maintenance,  30  per  cent  in  the  work  of  converting  feed  into  milk,  and 
about  20  per  cent  finally  appears  as  milk.  These  percentages  vary, 
depending  on  the  nature  of  the  feed  and  the  individual,  but  a  good  dairy 
cow  is  more  efficient  as  a  machine  than  either  the  horse  or  the  steam 
engine.  In  the  Missouri  experiment  it  was  found  that  the  higher-pro- 
ducing cow  required  slightly  more  feed  for  maintenance;  hence,  the 
wide  variation  in  production  could  not  be  accounted  for  by  a  superiority 
of  the  high-producing  cow  in  regard  to  maintenance. 

During  the  year  of  the  investigation,  Pedro's  Ramaposa  produced 
8,522  pounds  of  milk  and  469.9  pounds  of  fat.     Pedro's  Elf  produced 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  193 

3,188  pounds  of  milk  and  169.3  pounds  of  fat.  The  former  produced 
2.67  pounds  of  milk  and  2.77  pounds  of  fat  for  each  pound  produced 
by  the  latter.  The  digestion  trial  showed  practically  identical  results, 
the  co-efficient  of  digestion  being  64.39  per  cent  for  the  best  cow  and 
64.99  for  the  poorest  cow.  Pedro's  Ramaposa  consumed  1.75  pounds 
of  feed  for  each  pound  used  by  the  other  cow,  and  the  real  cause  of 
the  difference  in  production  was  found  to  be  the  amount  of  feed  con- 
sumed above  maintenance.  The  maintenance  requirement  being  prac- 
tically the  same,  Ramaposa  had  65  per  cent  of  the  total  feed  consumed 
available  for  milk  production,  and  Elf  had  only  44.2  per  cent  thus 
available. 

It  was  observed  that  Ramaposa,  when  producing  the  maximum 
milk  yield,  was  practically  to  the  limit  of  her  capacity  for  handling 
feed.  Her  maximum  capacity  for  feed  seemed  to  coincide  closely  with 
the  amount  necessary  to  maintain  her  at  uniform  weight.  Elf  con- 
sumed all  her  feed,  and  would  have  taken  slightly  more  had  it  been 
offered,  although  she  never  showed  lack  of  feed.  Ramaposa  had  much 
the  stronger  appetite;  she  ate  rapidly,  swallowed  the  grain  with  much 
less  chewing,  and  always  showed  by  her  impatience  to  get  her  feed  a 
much  keener  appetite  than  did  the  latter.  Both  cows  remained  in 
excellent  physical  condition  throughout  the  investigation. 

After  deducting  the  maintenance  requirement,  one  cow  produced 
milk  as  economically  as  the  other.  The  ratio  between  the  feed  avail- 
able for  milk  production  and  the  milk  produced  was  practically  the 
sam.e  for  each  cow.  The  experiment  showed  that  cows  vary  but  little 
in  the  maintenance  requirement,  or  in  their  ability  to  digest  feed.  A 
superior  dairy  cow  is  one  with  a  large  capacity  for  feed  above  mainte- 
nance, and  one  that  is  not  disposed  to  take  on  fat,  but  uses  the  feed  above 
maintenance  for  milk  production.  This  once  more  emphasizes  the  im- 
portance of  a  large,  well-developed  barrel  and  its  significance  in  judging 
dairy  cows,  provided  the  cow  also  has  a  high  degree  of  dairy  tempera- 
ment as  shown  by  her  lean  appearance  when  heavily  fed  while  in  milk. 

EflFect  of  feed  on  quantity  and  composition  of  milk. — The  general 
statement  may  be  made  that  the  quantity  of  milk  is  dependent  upon 
the  amount  of  feed  and  upon  the  inherent  milk-giving  qualities  of  the 
cow.  Feed  has  an  effect  on  the  quantity  of  the  milk  yield,  in  that  an 
underfed  cow  cannot  produce  to  the  limit  of  her  ability.  As  shown  in 
the  Missouri  experiment,  however,  heavy  feeding  does  not  increase  the 
cow's  ability,  it  merely  makes  possible  a  production  that  is  up  to  the 
limit  of  her  natural,  inherited  ability.  The  composition  of  the  milk 
cannot  be  permanently  changed  by  any  known  method  of  feeding;  the 
composition  is  regulated  by  the  udder  of  the  cow,  each  cow  having  her 
own  characteristic  quality  of  milk.     By  fattening  dry  cows,  the  fat 


194  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

content  of  the  milk  is  temporarily  raised  when  the  cows  freshen.  It 
is  known  that  cows  fed  cottonseed  meal  yield  butter  that  is  hard  and 
tallowy,  with  a  high  melting  point,  while  linseed  meal  produces  a  soft 
butter  with  a  low  melting  point.  In  spite  of  these  and  other  minor 
exceptions,  it  may  be  said  that  improvement  in  the  composition  of 
milk  is  a  breeding,  rather  than  a  feeding,  problem.  The  feeder  can 
only  supply  feed  in  such  amount  as  will  permit  the  cow  to  give  a  maxi- 
mum flow  of  milk.  But  as  we  have  seen,  two  cows  may  produce  far 
different  quantities  of  milk  when  given  the  best  of  care,  so  that  increase 
in  the  quantity  of  milk  is  also  a  problem  for  the  breeder.  Cows  are 
born  with  certain  inherent  abilities;  feeding  can  assist  these  inherent 
abilities  to  reveal  themselves,  but  cannot  permanently  alter  them. 
Great  cows  are  born  great.  Their  greatness  will  not  be  realized,  how- 
ever, unless  they  are  given  good  care  and  plenty  of  the  right  kind  of 
feed  to  use  in  manufacturing  milk.  No  matter  how  large  and  efficient 
a  factory  may  be,  it  cannot  turn  out  much  product  unless  it  has  avail- 
able an  abundant  supply  of  the  raw  material,  but  an  abundant  supply 
of  raw  material  will  not  raise  the  output  of  a  poorly  equipped  or  ineffi- 
cient p'ant  above  a  certain  low  maximum.  It  is  far  more  correct  to 
say  that  a  well-fed  dairy  cow  eats  because  she  gives  milk,  than  it  is  to 
say  that  she  gives  milk  because  she  eats. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
BREEDING  FOR  MILK  PRODUCTION 

There  were  24,429,000  milk  cows  on  farms  in  the  United  States 
on  January  1,  1923,  according  to  the  estimate  of  the  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  and  they  were  valued  at  $50.83  per  head.  If  put  in 
single  file,  allowing  ten  feet  of  space  for  each  animal,  they  would  make 
a  line  over  46,000  miles  long,  or  would  form  a  procession  18  abreast 
from  New  York  to  San  Francisco. 

The  distribution  of  dairy  cattle  in  the  United  States  is  shown  by 
the  numbers  of  milk  cows  in  the  leading  states  and  in  the  various 
geographical  divisions: 

Leading  states  in  numbers  of  milk  cows  on  farms,  January  1 , 1 923 

Average 
State  Number  value 

1.  Wisconsin 2,195,000  $57.00 

2.  New  York 1,678,000  63.00 

3.  Minnesota 1,641,000  47.00 

4.  Iowa 1,160,000  58.00 

5.  Illinois 1,148,000  56.00 


State 

Number 

Average 
value 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

Pennsylvania . 

Ohio 

Texas 

Michigan .... 
Missouri 

..1,071,000 

..1,069,000 
.  .1,052,000 
.  .    977,000 
.  .    777,000 

$60.00 

56.00 
36.00 
70.00 
45.00 

Distribution  of-^milk  cows  on  farms  by  geographical  divisions,  January  1 ,  1 923 

Divi.'sion  Number 

North  Atlantic 4,026,000 

South  Atlantic 2,045,000 

North  Central,  East  of  Mississippi  River 6,131,000 

North  Central,  West  of  Mississippi  River 5,817,000 

South  Central 4,432,000 

Far  Western 1,978,00« 


Total,  United  States 24,429,000 

Dairy  cattle  are  densely  distributed  in  the  northern  third  of  the 
eastern  half  of  the  United  States,  forming  a  well-marked  belt  from  the 
eastern  boundary  of  the  Dakotas  to  the  Atlantic,  and  including  the 
northern  and  eastern  margins  of  the  corn  belt.  The  concentration  of 
dairy  cattle  in  this  region  is  due  chiefly  to  the  number  of  large  cities 
located  within  it  and  to  the  large  percentage  of  total  population  which 
it  includes. 

Production  and  consumption  of  dairy  products. — The  United 
States  is  the  largest  producer  of  milk,  butter,  and  cheese  in  the  world, 
but  does  not  rank  high  in  average  per  capita  consumption.  Sweden 
consumes  about  600  pounds  of  whole  milk  per  capita,  Denmark  590 
pounds,  Switzerland  580  pounds,  United  States  370  pounds.  Great 
Britain  190  pounds,  and  Italy  36  pounds.  In  butter  consumption 
Canada  leads  with  27.7  pounds  per  capita,  and  the  United  States  with 

195 


196 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


15.5  pounds  is  fifth.  The  United  States  ranks  only  tenth  in  per  capita 
consumption  of  cheese  with  an  annual  consumption  of  4.2  pounds, 
while  Switzerland  leads  with  26.4  pounds.  ^ 

Conditions  suitable  to  dairy  farming. — Dairying  is  especially 
adapted  to  regions  where  the  land  is  improved  and  productive  of  good 
crops  of  grain  and  roughage,  and  where  the  labor  necessary  for  the 
continuous  care  of  dairy  cows  is  available.  Dairy  cows  require  more 
labor  than  any  other  class  of  farm  animals.  Feed  and  labor  are  both 
large  items  of  expense  in  dairying,  and  the  demand  for  them  is  constant, 
whereas  in  the  production  of  meat  animals  the  demands  for  feed  and 
labor  are  to  a  greater  degree  seasonal.     Economy  requires  that  as 


Fig.  67. — Distribution   of  dairy  cattle   in   the  United  States. 


much  of  the  feed  as  possible  shall  be  produced  on  the  farm.  The  dairy 
cow  is  well  adapted  to  high-priced  lands  and  to  diversified  and  inten- 
sive farming  in  which  the  farmer  strives  to  produce  the  largest  possible 
return  from  a  limited  or  relatively  small  acreage.  Dairy  farming 
rightly  practiced  under  favorable  conditions  is  very  profitable. 

Dairying  for  the  production  of  butter  and  cheese  is  successfully 
practiced  in  regions  far  remote  from  markets  and  consuming  centers, 
but  the  production  of  market  milk  necessitates  ready  access  to  markets. 

Success  in  breeding  dairy  cattle. — No  greater  strides  have  been 
made  in  animal  breeding  during  recent  years  than  have  been  made  by 
many  breeders  of  purebred  dairy  cattle.     These  breeders  keep  accurate 


IT.  R.  Pirtle:  A  Handbook  of  Dairy  Statistics,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1922. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  197 

records  of  the  amount  of  milk  and  butter-fat  produced  by  each  cow. 
Such  records  not  only  reveal  the  producing  ability  of  each  cow,  but 
they  also  enable  the  breeder  to  determine  which  bulls  sire  the  best 
daughters  and  which  cows  produce  the  best  daughters.  The  calves 
produced  by  the  best  sires  and  dams  are  retained  for  use  in  improving 
the  herd.  The  calves  sold  from  the  herd  are  priced  largely  according 
to  the  records  of  their  dams  and  grandams,  and  according  to  the  known 
or  proven  ability  of  their  sires  and  grandsires.  Marked  improvement 
in  purebred  dairy  cattle  has  resulted  from  keeping  accurate  records  of 
production. 

Many  dairymen  owning  grade  herds  and  engaged  in  the  production 
of  market  milk  and  butter-fat  have  observed  the  benefits  derived  from 
keeping  records  and  have  adopted  the  methods  of  progressive  breeders 
of  purebred  dairy  cattle  as  the  means  of  improving  their  own  herds. 

Success  in  dairying  requires  (1)  the  use  of  good,  purebred  dairy 
bulls  and  (2)  the  keeping  of  accurate  records  of  the  milk  and  butter-fat 
produced  and  of  the  feed  consumed  by  each  cow  in  the  herd.  Dairymen 
who  are  members  of  cow-testing  associations  have  these  records  kept 
for  them  at  small  expense,  and  the  cooperative  bull  association  enables 
even  the  smallest  dairyman  to  breed  his  cows  to  good,  purebred  sires. 

A  cow-testing  association  is  a  farmers'  organization  which  employs 
a  tester  who  visits  each  farm  once  a  month,  weighs,  samples,  and  tests 
the  milk  of  each  cow,  and  weighs  jier  feed.  He  then  computes  the 
monthly  milk  and  butter-fat  production  and  cost  of  feed  for  each  cow 
in  the  herd.  Monthly  records  computed  in  this  way  have  been  found 
to  be  very  closely  accurate.  Such  records  are  valuable  not  only  for 
weeding  out  unprofitable  cows,  but  they  establish  beyond  all  doubt 
the  value  of  the  herd  sires  by  disclosing  the  ability  of  the  daughters 
in  comparison  to  the  ability  of  their  dams.  The  first  cow-testing 
association  in  the  United  States  was  the  Newaygo  County  (Michigan) 
Association,  organized  in  1905.  On  July  1,  1922,  there  were  513  such 
associations  active  in  38  states,  and  including  a  total  of  12,508  herds 
and  216,875  cows.  Wisconsin  was  far  in  the  lead  with  127  associa- 
tions, including  3,517  herds  and  61,489  cows.  ^ 

A  cooperative  bull  association  is  an  organization  of  farmers  for 
the  joint  ownership,  use,  and  exchange  of  good  purebred  bulls.  Such 
organizations  accomplish  two  important  purposes:  1.  Good  pure- 
bred bulls  are  made  readily  available  to  the  small  dairyman  at  small 
cost.  2.  The  good  purebred  dairy  sire  is  kept  in  service  in  the  com- 
munity and  is  used  to  his  full  capacity.  Too  frequently  good  bulls 
are  sent  to  the  butcher  because  they  cannot  be  used  more  than  two 


HI.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Dairy  Div.,  Directory  of  Cow-Testing 
Associations  in  the  United  States,  Active  July  1,  1922. 


198  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

or  three  years  in  small  herds  without  mating  them  with  their  daughters, 
but  a  bull  association  puts  a  stop  to  this  practice.  The  cooperative 
bull  association  usually  has  its  membership  divided  into  three  or  more 
blocks,  each  block  being  supplied  with  one  bull  which  is  kept  two  years 
and  then  shifted  to  another  block.  The  bulls  are  owned  by  the  associa- 
tion as  a  whole.  The  purchase  price  and  cost  of  maintenance  are 
distributed  according  to  the  number  of  cows  owned  by  each  member. 
By  combining  the  cow-testing  association  and  the  bull  association, 
members  of  the  latter  may  not  only  own  good  bulls,  but  they  may  de- 
termine the  actual  ability  of  these  bulls  and  may  keep  a  high-class  sire 
in  use  to  his  full  capacity  as  long  as  he  is  serviceable. 

The  first  cooperative  bull  association  was  organized  by  the  Michi- 
gan Agricultural  College  in  1908.  On  July  1,  1922,  there  were  190 
active  associations  in  36  states,  with  a  total  membership  of  6,102, 
owning  857  purebred  bulls.  The  6,102  members  owned  40,669  cows, 
7,123  of  which  were  purebred.  There  was  an  average  of  6.7  cows  per 
member,  7  members  per  bull,  and  32  members  per  association.  ^  These 
averages  show  that  it  is  the  small  dairyman  who  benefits  most  from 
such  an  organization.  As  one  writer  states,  ^  "Fifty  dollars  may  buy 
a  scrub  bull,  but  if  five  farmers  will  join  an  association  and  pay  $50 
each,  they  may  own  a  $250  bull." 

Pennsylvania  with  27  associations  and  527  members  had  the  most 
bull  associations  in  1922,  and  South  Carolina  with  23  associations  and 
930  members  had  the  largest  membership.  When  questioned  regarding 
the  value  of  cooperative  bull  associations,  150  farmers  in  Maryland, 
Michigan,  and  Minnesota  estimated  that  the  use  of  the  association 
bulls  increased  the  value  of  the  offspring  from  the  first  cross  from  30 
to  80  per  cent,  with  an  average  of  65  per  cent.  ^ 

Results  obtained  in  grading. — There  is  great  need  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  average  dairy  cow  of  the  country.  The  small  number  of 
purebred  dairy  cows  makes  it  inadvisable  to  recommend  that  this  im- 
provement shall  be  accomplished  by  replacing  the  average  cow  with  a 
purebred  cow,  and  that  all  milk  and  butter-fat  shall  be  produced  by 
purebred  cattle.  ^    However,  this  ideal  is  easily  possible  of  close  ap- 


lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Dairy  Div.,  Directory  of  Cooperative 
Bull  Associations  in  the  United  States,  Active  July  1,  1922. 

2J.  C.  McDowell:  Butter-fat  and  Income,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1917, 
p.  360. 

3  J.  G.  Winkjer:  Cooperative  Bull  Associations,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bui. 
993,  p.  6. 

4  About  3  per  cent  of  the  dairy  cattle  of  the  United  States  are  purebred  and 
registered.  The  ten  leading  states  in  numbers  of  registered  dairy  cattle  as  shown 
by  the  1920  census,  in  order  of  rank,  were  New  York,  Wisconsin,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
Michigan,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  Vermont,  Texas,  and  Indiana.  New  York  with  over 
150,000  head  had  one-sixth  of  the  registered  dairy  cattle  of  the  country,  and  Wis- 
consin with  115,000  had  one-eighth. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


199 


proximation  by  using  purebred  dairy  bulls  to  grade  up  the  ordinary 
dairy  cows  of  the  country.  There  is  no  good  argument  in  behalf  of 
keeping  any  except  a  purebred  dairy  bull  at  the  head  of  any  dairy  herd. 
No  progressive  dairyman  will  take  chances  in  raising  a  heifer  calf  for 
milk  purposes  whose  sire  is  either  a  beef  bull  or  a  mongrel.  The 
necessity  for  using  purebred  sires  to  breed  to  common  cows  and  the 
financial  advantage  of  such  a  policy  was  pointed  out  in  Chapter  IX, 
in  which  the  breeding  of  beef  cattle  for  the  market  was  discussed. 
The  arguments  there  presented  apply  with  equal  force  to  the  breeding 
of  dairy  cattle. 

Tests  which  strikingly  illustrate  the  effect  of  a  purebred  sire  in 
improving  a  herd  of  scrub  dairy  cows  have  been  conducted  at  the  Iowa 
Station^  by  Kildee  and  McCandlish.  The  scrub  cows  were  mated 
with  good  purebred  Holstein,  Guernsey,  and  Jersey  bulls,  and  the 
daughters  were  in  turn  mated  with  similar  bulls.  The  results  presented 
in  the  following  table  show  the  average  yearly  production  of  the 
original  scrub  cows  and  the  greatly  increased  ability  of  their  daughters 
and  granddaughters.  All  were  fed  and  cared  for  alike,  and  no  animals 
were  weeded  out  during  the  experiment,  so  that  the  improvement 
secured  can  be  credited  only  to  the  use  of  good  purebred  sires: 

Average  production  by  scrub  cows  and  by  their  daughters  and  granddaughters  sired  by 
purebred  dairy  bulls 


Scrub  dams .... 

Daughters 

Granddaughters 


Milk 
Pounds 


3,660 
5,999 
8,402 


Fat 
Pounds 


172 
261 
358 


Increase  over  original 
scrub  cows 


Milk 
Per  cent 


Fat 
Per  cent 


64 
130 


52 
109 


The  half-blood  daughters,  carrying  50  per  cent  of  improved  breed- 
ing, showed  an  increase  of  52  per  cent  in  butter-fat  production  as  com- 
pared to  their  scrub  dams.  The  granddaughters,  carrying  75  per  cent 
of  improved  breeding,  showed  an  increase  of  109  per  cent  in  butter-fat 
production  as  compared  to  their  scrub  grandams.  In  other  words,  the 
production  of  this  herd  was  doubled  in  two  generations  through  the 
use  of  good  dairy  sires. 

J.  C.  McDowell  of  the  Dairy  Division,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  states:  ^  "A  scrub  cow  is  almost  worthless  because  she 
yields  no  profit.  A  scrub  bull  is  worse  than  worthless  because  he 
quickly  drags  the  remainder  of  the  herd  down  to  his  low  level.  In  a 
year  a  scrub  cow  produced  146.8  pounds  of  butter-fat.     Her  daughter, 

iJowa  Buls.  165,  188. 

2U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1920,  p.  410. 


200 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


Scrub  cow  No.  56.  Av- 
erage yearly  production 
3,874.6  pounds  of  milk  and 
192.62  pounds  of  fat. 


Half-bloc d  Holstein  No. 
77,  cut  of  Scrub  No.  56. 
Average  yearly  production 
6,955.5  pounds  of  milk  and 
266.25  pounds  of  fat. 


0r^w^-^, 


Three-quarter- blood 
Holstein  No.  233,  out  of 
half-blood  Hol.stein  No.  77. 
Average  yearly  production 
12,804.2  pounds  of  milk  and 
482.54  pounds  of  fat. 


Fig.  68. — What  good  purebred  sires  can  do.     Improved  production  in  two 
generations  through  the  use  of  purebred  Holstein  sires.     From  the  Iowa  experiment. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  201 

sired  by  a  scrub  bull,  produced  126.3  pounds  of  butter-fat,  and  the 
granddaughter,  sired  by  the  same  scrub,  produced  99.7  pounds  of 
butter-fat.  California  Gretel,  a  Toggenburg  goat,  produced  almost  as 
much." 

By  going  to  the  same  breed  each  time  a  sire  is  selected,  the  dairy- 
man soon  acquires  a  herd  of  very  high-grade  cows,  having  only  a  very 
small  percentage  of  scrub  ancestry.  Good  grade  dairy  cows  often 
rival  their  purebred  cousins  in  production,  and  many  have  sold  at 
prices  considerably  above  $200.  By  using  purebred  sires,  and  by 
weeding  out  the  poor  producers  and  retaining  the  high-producing  cows 
and  their  heifer  calves,  an  inferior  herd  may  be  revolutionized  and  made 
to  yield  a  profit.  In  this  way  the  dairyman  is  enabled  to  raise  his 
standards  higher  and  higher,  each  year  eliminating  from  his  herd  those 
cows  which  fail  to  reach  the  mark.  Eventually  a  herd  is  built  up  in 
which  every  cow  returns  a  large  profit  on  the  feed  and  care  invested 
in  her  during  the  year. 

Good  breeding,  feeding,  and  management. — The  following  records 
made  by  the  herd  of  Peder  Pedersen  and  Son  in  the  Benson  Cow- 
Testing  Association,  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa,  in  three  consecutive  years 
show  what  may  be  accomplished  by  the  use  of  good  sires,  the  keeping 
of  records,  weeding  out  the  poor  cows,  and  by  proper  feeding  and 
management: 

Average  Net  income 

Year  Average  milk  per  cow  butter-fat  per  cow  over 

per  cow,  lbs.  cost  of  feed 

1911  5,665  pounds 207.7  $22.12 

Largest  net  income  cow  in  herd 54.22 

1912  7,060  pounds 251.9  53.96 

Largest  net  income  cow  in  herd 106.30 

1913  9,697.47  pounds 341.98  75.00 

Two  largest  net  income  cows,  each 144.00 

This  herd  was  made  up  of  grades  and  a  few  purebred  Holsteins, 
and  the  number  of  cows  remained  about  the  same  during  the  three 
years  reported.  At  the  end  of  the  first  year  it  was  found  that  40  per 
cent  of  the  cows  were  unprofitable.  They  were  sent  to  the  butcher, 
and  their  places  in  the  herd  were  taken  by  two-year-old  heifers  sired 
by  a  purebred  sire  out  of  common  cows.  At  the  end  of  the  second 
year,  30  per  cent  of  the  cows  were  "weeded  out"  and  their  places  taken 
by  two-year-old  grade  heifers,  one  purebred  cow,  and  one  purebred 
two-year-old  heifer.  The  end  of  the  third  year's  work  showed  that 
the  average  milk  production  had  been  increased  over  71  per  cent,  the 
butter-fat  60  per  cent,  and  the  average  net  profit  per  cow  increased 
from  $22.12  to  $75.00,  or  239  per  cent. 

Selection  of  the  dairy  bull. — If  twenty  dairy  bulls  are  brought 
before  a  judge  recognized  as  competent,  and  he  is  asked  to  pick  out  the 


202  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

bull  that  will  sire  the  highest-producing  cows,  he  will  be  unable  to  do 
so  with  any  degree  of  certainty  by  studying  their  individualities.  He 
may  easily  eliminate  some  of  them  because  of  lack  of  constitution, 
weak  masculinity,  or  because  they  show  a  decided  tendency  towards 
fleshiness.  Having  such  faults,  he  is  reasonably  certain  that  they  will 
not  prove  sure  breeders,  or  that  their  heifer  calves  will  not  develop  into 
high  producers.  Having  eliminated  certain  ones,  there  will  probably 
be  several  bulls  remaining  that  have  no  serious  faults  in  conformation, 
and  among  these  it  is  mere  guesswork  to  attempt  to  select  the  most 
successful  sire.  The  beef  bull  carries  his  evidence  of  merit  upon  his 
back,  but  the  true  value  of  the  dairy  bull  can  be  judged  only  by  the 
kind  of  cows  in  his  ancestry,  the  kind  of  cows  he  sires,  or  by  both. 
The  judging  of  dairy  bulls  in  the  show  ring  is  much  less  conducive  to 
good  results  in  the  improvement  of  cattle  than  is  the  judging  of  beef 
bulls. 

As  a  general  rule,  when  valuing  a  purebred  animal,  more  emphasis 
should  be  placed  upon  individuality  than  upon  pedigree;  but  the  dairy 
bull  is  an  exception.  On  a  basis  of  100  points  given  to  the  bull's  selec- 
tion, it  is  conservative  to  state  that  40  points  should  be  allotted  to  his 
individuality,  and  60  points  to  the  records  of  performance  in  his  pedi- 
gree. All  purebred  dairy  bulls  have  pedigrees,  but  in  many  cases  no 
records  were  kept  of  the  production  of  their  female  ancestors;  in  such 
cases  the  pedigree  has  no  special  significance,  and  little  importance  can 
be  attached  to  it.  When  records  of  performance  of  the  ancestors  are 
available,  the  bull  is  said  to  have  a  "pedigree  with  performance,"  and 
to  such  a  pedigree  much  attention  should  be  given  when  selecting  a 
bull. 

If  the  bull  is  matured  and  has  been  long  enough  in  service  so  that 
he  has  heifers  in  milk,  they  furnish  the  best  evidence  of  the  bull's  value 
as  a  breeder.  In  this  connection,  however,  the  dams  of  the  heifers 
must  be  studied,  as  the  seeming  success  of  the  bull  may  be  very  largely 
due  to  the  excellence  of  the  cows  with  which  he  is  mated.  If  the  dams 
are  inferior  and  the  heifers  are  good,  all  the  more  credit  is  due  the  sire. 

A  Wisconsin  farmer  who  was  about  to  sell  his  purebred  Guernsey 
bull  to  the  butcher  discovered  just  in  time  that  the  bull  was  a  superior 
sire.  When  the  records  were  completed,  his  daughters  had  produced 
an  average  of  7,886  pounds  of  milk  and  397  pounds  of  butter-fat,  as 
compared  to  5,968  pounds  of  milk  and  292  pounds  of  butter-fat  for 
their  dams.  Another  Wisconsin  farmer  did  sell  his  registered  Holstein 
bull  to  the  butcher  because  he  could  not  use  him  further  without 
inbreeding,  only  to  discover  his  mistake  later  when  11  of  the  daughters 
freshened  at  the  ages  of  2  and  3  years  and  made  yearly  records  averag- 
ing 15,047  pounds  of  milk  and  571  pounds  of  butter-fat.     Commenting 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  203 

on  this  loss  of  a  valuable  sire,  J.  C.  McDowell  points  out^  that  a  cow- 
testing  association  tests  the  dams  and  daughters,  and  the  cooperative 
bull  association  makes  it  possible  to  keep  a  bull  until  his  daughters 
are  tested.  As  he  states,  "These  associations  would  have  saved  that 
bull." 

The  pedigree  with  performance. — Most  of  the  trade  in  purebred 
dairy  bulls  is  in  bull  calves,  for  only  rarely  will  a  successful  bull,  as 
shown  by  actual  trial,  be  offered  for  sale.  The  best  indication  of  the 
future  breeding  value  of  a  dairy  bull  calf  is  furnished  by  the  milk  and 
butter-fat  records  of  his  dam.  If  any  of  her  female  offspring  have 
records  of  production,  these  also  furnish  valuable  evidence.  Next,  the 
records  of  the  cows  sired  by  his  sire  should  be  studied,  if  such  records 
are  available.  After  that,  the  performance  of  the  paternal  and  ma- 
ternal grandams  should  be  noted,  together  with  the  performance  of 
their  female  offspring.  The  grandsires'  lists  of  performers  should  be 
studied  also,  and,  if  possible,  similar  studies  should  be  made  of  the  great- 
grandams  and  great-grandsires.  The  fundamental  principle  under- 
lying breeding  is  that  "like  begets  hke,"  and  if  the  bull  has  a  high- 
producing  ancestry,  high-producing  sisters,  and  the  other  female  mem- 
bers of  his  family  are  high  producers,  we  are  reasonably  certain  that 
he  has  inherited  true  dairy  qualities  of  a  high  order  which  he  will  trans- 
mit to  his  offspring. 

As  a  fine  example  of  a  pedigree  with  performance,  the  pedigree  of 
the  Guernsey  bull,  May  King  of  Ingleside  12558,  is  herewith  presented. 
Such  a  bull  commands  too  high  a  price  to  permit  using  him  on  grade 
cows,  and  the  average  dairyman  seeking  a  sire  cannot  expect  to  obtain 
a  bull  with  a  pedigree  equal  to  this  one,  although  he  may  be  able  to 
secure  a  son  or  grandson  of  such  a  bull  at  the  price  he  can  afford  to 
pay.  This  son  or  grandson  preferably  should  be  from  a  tested  dam 
with  a  butter-fat  record  of  not  less  than  400  pounds,  and  she  should  be 
descended  from  high-producing  ancestors. 

A  New  England  dairyman  writing  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  ^  regarding  his  experience  with  a  cheap,  untried,  purebred  sire, 
stated  that  he  had  purchased  a  bull  of  creditable  breeding  on  the  sire's 
side,  but  out  of  a  dam  that  was  "just  a  purebred  cow,"  with  no  produc- 
tion records.  He  writes,  "I  had  a  herd  of  grades,  30  in  number,  that 
milked  from  5,000  to  8,000  pounds  of  milk  a  year  and  which  had  taken 
a  lot  of  time  and  money  to  get  together.  I  raised  22  heifers  from  this 
bull  before  the  first  one  freshened.  Not  one  of  them  gave  25  pounds 
of  milk  a  day  with  the  first  calf.     I  stopped  using  the  bull  and  kept 


lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1920,  p.  410. 

2D.  S.  Burch:  Utility  Value  of  Purebred  Live  Stock,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Circ. 
235,  pp.  10,  11. 


204 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


the  best  females  to  freshen  a  second  time.  There  was  not  much  im- 
provement. The  bull  and  every  one  of  his  heifers  were  sold  for  what 
I  could  get,  which  was  not  much.  By  that  time  a  number  of  my  cows 
were  getting  old.  It  was  a  case  of  buy  more  cows  to  keep  my  herd  in 
good  numbers  as  well  as  milk.  With  four  years  lost,  and  I  don't  know 
how  much  money,  I  learned  not  to  buy  an  animal  because  it  is  regis- 
tered, but  to  buy  an  individual  whose  ancestors  have  made  good,  with 
no  weak  points  in  his  breeding,  and  then  pay  the  price.  It's  the 
cheapest  by  far  in  the  end." 


Imp.  King  of  the  Ma; 

Sire  of: 
Langwater  Dorothy 
Langwater  Hope 
Langwater  Rosie. 
Langwater  Princess   . 
Lang.  May  Queen.    . 
Langwater  Daisy    . 
Lang.  May  Rose  . . . . 
Langwater  Felois 
Langwater  Milkmaid. 
Sister  Sue  of  Lang 
Hayes  Queen  May 

Also  sire  of  seven  A, 


9001.  A.  B 

.72. 

M.Ik 

Butter- 
fat 

16099.70 

781,65 

15078.80 

773.59 

15083.00 

724.23 

.  12280.50 

651  19 

11275.70 

592.84 

10710.30 

B57.55 

.  9212.50 

530.06 

.  9445.90 

529.81 

.  9550.20 

510.05 

.10290.70 

469.60 

7904.30 

406.94 

R  sons. 

Dolly  Bloom  of  Langwater  15452,  A.  R. 
674. 

Record:  12024.50  lbs.  milk;  632.34  lbs. 

butter-fat. 
Dam  of: 
Lang.  Dolly  Bloom.   .   13250.80    714.60 

Abo  dam  of  one  A.  R.  son 


Imp.  Ma;  Rose  King  8336.  A.  R.  41. 

Sire  of:                           Milk  '^'J'^f" 

Rosa  Rubra 14329.15  788.89 

Florham  Daisy 14876.60  747.08 

May  Rose  Queen 12548.30  667.19 

Comefy  Rose            .     12861.15  641.79 

Queen  of  the  Roses        12223.25  604.94 

Florham  Pride 10860.60  591.85 

Anton's  May  Rose...  10778.70  591.55 

Southern  Rose       12774.10  583.00 

May  Rose  of  Kent  . .   10779.65  556.56 

Rutila's  Mav  Rose          9701.10  556.40 

Queen  of  May  Rose.     11448.90  539.03 

Pride  of  Place          .     10035.50  531.26 

And  seven  other  A.  R.  daughters. 

Also  sire  of  nine  A.  R.  sons. 


Imp.  Itcben  Daisy  3d  15630,  A.  R.  100. 

Record:  13636  80  lbs.  milk;  714.10  lbs. 

butter-fat.    Sold  for  $4,000. 

Dam  of: 
Florham  Daisy..  14876.60    748.08 

Langwater  Dairymaid  13747.50    670.12 

Also  dam  of  one  A.  R.  son. 


Dolly  Bloom  of  Lang . .  12024.50  632.34 

Nelly  Jay 9576.10  477.27 

Carrie  Bell 7605.00  373.38 

Also  sire  of  three  A.  R.  sons. 


Dolly  Bloom  12770,  A.  R.  40. 

Record:  17297.51  lbs.  milk;  836.21  lbs. 

butter-fat. 

Dam  of: 

Dolly  Dimple 18808.50    876.34 

Dolly  Bloom  of  Lang    12024.50    632.34 


Itchen  Jewel  1112  E.  G.  H.  B. 

3d    prize,    Bath    and    West,    England, 

1899. 
2d  prize,  Royal  Counties,  1899. 

Butter- 


Milk 


fat 


Also  dam  of  t 


A.  R. 


Claremonl  May  Rose  8648  E.  G.  H.  & 

2d  prize  over  Island,  1895. 

1st  prize  over  Island.  1896-7-8. 

1st  prize  in  England,  1897. 

1st  prize  at  nearly  all^English  shows  of 

1890-91-92. 
1st  and  Championship,  1902. 
1st  at  London  Dairy  Show,  1901. 
Dam  of  Imp.  May  Rose  4th— 442  lbs. 

butter-fat. 


May  Day  1132  E.  G.  H.  B. 

1st  prize  Royal  Counties  Show,  1898. 

1st  Bath  and  West,  1899. 

Sire    of    Suzerain,    3d   prize   Bath  and 

West,  1900. 
H.  C.  Royal  Counties,  1900. 
C.  Royal,  1900;  2d  East  Kent,  1901. 
Grandsire    of   Melanie  of  Goodnestone 

3d-7415.60    lbs.    milk;    387.76    lbs. 

butter-fat. 

Daisy  Gem  3341  E.  G.  H.  B. 

John  R.  Gentry  4655. 

Half  brother  to  GlenVvood  Boy  of 
Haddon,  A.  R.  8,  sire  of  Jedetta  of 
Pinehurst— 15109.10  lbs.  milk;  778.80 
lbs.  butter-fat.  Also  sire  of  25  other 
A.  R.  daughters,  and  14  A.  R.  sons. 

Dosia  2d  10072. 

Divan  5846,  A.  R.  98. 

Sire  of: 

Dolly  Bloom 17297.51    836.21 

Dolly  Dillon 11867.30    532.21 

Belle  Wilson !  8434.40    423.55 

Also  sire  of  two  A.  R.  sons. 

Questa  11385. 

Dam  of: 

Dolly   Bloom 17297.51    836.21 

Dolly   Bloom's  sister 

Ray 7887.20    390.96 

Also  dam  of  two  A.  R.  sons. 


Select  individuals  first,  then  examine  pedigrees. — There  is  danger 
of  over-emphasizing  the  importance  of  pedigrees  when  breeding  any 
kind  of  live  stock,  and  this  is  especially  true  if  records  of  tests  are 
included  in  the  pedigrees.  Some  breeders  have  selected  and  mated 
their  animals  solely  upon  the  basis  of  records,  without  any  considera- 
tion of  individuality.  Animal  breeding  is  not  successfully  supervised 
when  the  owner  decides  upon  matings  from  pedigrees  spread  out  be- 
fore him  in  his  office  or  by  the  parlor  lamp.  If  this  is  done,  and  individ- 
uality is  neglected,  defects  of  conformation  may  gain  a  foothold  in  his 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  205 

herd  and  eventually  defeat  his  plans.  For  instance,  two  animals  may- 
be selected  for  mating  because  of  the  excellence  of  their  breeding;  in 
other  words,  the  mating  looks  good  on  paper;  but  weakness  of  constitu- 
tion may  be  common  to  both  of  them,  and  if  so,  it  is  probable  that 
their  offspring  will  exhibit  this  defect  in  greater  degree,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  fulfillment  of  the  offspring's  inherited  tendency  to  high  production. 
Enough  attempts  at  selecting  and  mating  animals  purely  on  the 
basis  of  records  have  met  with  failure  to  show  that  such  procedure  is 
very  liable  to  wreck  the  herd.  The  breeder  must  refuse  to  be  carried 
away  by  performance  to  the  extent  of  buying  merely  a  pedigree. 
Choose  several  good  individuals,  and  then  let  the  pedigrees  be  the 
basis  for  the  final  choice.  A  meritorious  individual  should  accompany 
the  meritorious  pedigree. 

Advantages  of  dairy  farming: 

1.  The  dairy  cow  is  well  adapted  to  diversified  and  intensive 
farming  where  the  farmer  strives  to  produce  the  greatest  possible  in- 
come from  a  small  acreage.  Striking  examples  of  this  fact  are  found 
in  Holland,  Denmark,  and  the  island  of  Jersey. 

2.  If  the  manure  is  properly  conserved  and  used,  dairy  farming 
increases  soil  fertility.  A  ton  of  butter  removes  only  64  cents'  worth 
of  plant  food  from  the  farm,  while  a  ton  of  corn  removes  $6.56  worth 
of  plant  food.  By  feeding  the  crops  and  purchased  supplementary 
feeds  to  dairy  cows,  the  land  may  be  made  more  productive. 

3.  The  dairy  cow  is  a  continuous  source  of  revenue.  The  cream 
or  milk  checks  come  in  at  frequent  and  regular  intervals. 

4.  Skim  milk  is  a  most  excellent  feed  for  hogs  and  poultry. 

5.  Good  grade  and  purebred  dairy  cows  meet  with  ready  sale. 
It  is  also  true  that  the  dairy  cow  yields  about  six  times  as  much 

edible  solids  in  her  milk  for  every  100  pounds  of  digestible  nutrients 
consumed  as  the  beef  steer  or  mutton  sheep  in  its  carcass.  On  this 
basis  of  comparison  the  dairy  cow  is  shown  to  be  a  more  economical 
producer  of  human  food  than  is  the  steer,  sheep,  or  pig. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
DUAL-PURPOSE  CATTLE 

Dual-purpose  cattle  are  all-purpose  or  general-purpose  cattle. 
They  occupy  a  position  midway  between  the  beef  and  the  dairy  types, 
the  aim  being  to  combine  the  good  points  of  both  beef  and  dairy  cattle 
as  nearly  as  possible.  The  dual-purpose  cow,  however,  does  not  give 
as  much  milk  as  the  dairy  cow,  nor  does  she  make  as  much  beef  as  the 
beef  cow.  At  present  the  demand  for  dual-purpose  cattle  is  compara- 
tively limited,  although  it  has  been  predicted  that  many  farms  will 
eventually  adopt  the  dual-purpose  type  as  the  one  most  profitable. 
It  is  also  believed  that  those  who  maintain  beef  breeding  herds  will  in 
the  future  pay  more  attention  to  the  milking  qualities  of  their  cows. 

Perhaps  no  subject  relating  to  cattle  has  aroused  so  much  discus- 
sion as  has  the  type,  economic  importance,  and  probable  future  of  the 
dual-purpose  cow.  It  has  been  argued  that  the  day  of  general-purpose 
animals  is  past.  It  is  said  that  this  is  a  day  of  specialization  in  all 
things,  and  that  better  results  and  more  profit  are  obtained  from 
animals  which  do  one  thing  and  do  it  well,  than  are  obtained  from 
animals  which  do  two  or  three  things  in  a  mediocre  way.  While  it  is 
true  that  the  tendency  in  the  live-stock  world  is  more  and  more  toward 
highly  specialized  types  of  animals,  it  is  also  true  that  there  are  good 
arguments  in  favor  of  a  dual-purpose  type  of  cattle.  Of  these  argu- 
ments, the  best  one  is  that  there  is  need  of  a  farmer's  cow;  that  is,  a 
cow  for  the  farmer  who  is  neither  a  beef  producer  nor  a  dairyman,  but 
who  wants  to  produce  enough  meat  and  milk  for  his  own  use.  Such 
a  man  wants  a  cow  that  gives  a  good  flow  of  milk,  and  yet  one  that 
has  a  strong  enough  beef  tendency  to  produce  a  calf  that  will  feed  out 
well  and  make  a  good  carcass;  in  other  words,  this  man  wants  a  dual- 
purpose  cow.  There  can  be  no  doubting  this  argument  and  it  was  this 
demand  which  made  the  old-time  Shorthorn  the  popular  cow  with 
farmers  50  or  60  years  ago. 

Another  argument  frequently  advanced  in  behalf  of  dual-purpose 
cattle  is  that  beef  production  on  high-priced  land  must,  in  the  future, 
come  from  a  dual-purpose  type  of  cattle.  On  western  ranches  where 
land  is  cheap,  a  calf  is  all  the  return  a  cow  need  give  in  order  to  make 
her  profitable,  but  the  corn-belt  farmer  on  $100  and  $200  land  cannot 
conduct  a  business  on  the  same  basis  as  the  western  ranchman.  It  is 
argued  that  a  farmer  on  high-priced  land  cannot  afford  to  keep  a  cow 
that  produces  calves  suitable  for  feeding  into  beef  unless  she  pays  for 

206 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  207 

her  board,  in  part  at  least,  with  a  fair  amount  of  butter-fat.  It  is 
argued  that  he  can  no  more  afford  this  than  he  can  afford  to  keep 
mutton  sheep  which  produce  lambs,  but  no  wool.  The  advocates  of 
the  dual-purpose  cow  claim  that  she  will  be  the  salvation  of  future  beef 
production.  However  this  may  be,  changes  will  come  gradually  and 
it  seems  probable  that  the  beef-type  animal  is  destined  to  continue 
popular  for  some  years  to  come. 

The  methods  of  management  where  dual-purpose  herds  are  kept 
vary  considerably.  Sometimes  the  production  of  beef  is  given  most 
attention  and  the  milking  qualities  of  the  cows  are  esteemed  only  as 
a  source  of  feed  for  the  calves.     At  the  other  extreme  are  herds  managed 


Fig.  69. — The  dual-purpose  type.  Milking  Shorthorn  cow,  Pansy  2d,  first 
prize  winner  at  Carlisle,  England.  Imported  and  owned  by  James  J.  Hill,  St.  Paul, 
Minn. 

as  dairy  herds,  the  beefiness  of  the  cows  making  possible  a  good  income 
from  choice  veal  calves  reared  on  skim  milk  and  supplemental  feeds. 
Neither  of  these  plans  represents  true  dual-purpose  management. 
The  dual-purpose  cow  is  at  her  best  when  the  plan  calls  for  the  sale 
of  milk  or  butter-fat  and  the  rearing  of  calves  to  be  fed  and  marketed 
as  fat  steers  and  heifers,  or  sold  into  other  hands  for  feeding.  All  of 
the  cows  may  be  milked,  the  butter-fat  sold,  and  the  skim  milk  fed  to 
the  calves;  or  half  of  the  cows  may  be  milked  and  the  rest  allowed  to 
raise  the  calves. 


208  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

It  is  considerable  trouble  to  rear  calves  on  skim  milk,  but  it  is 
being  done  with  good  results  on  many  farms.  The  skim  milk  should 
be  supplemented  by  oats,  bran,  corn  meal,  hay,  and  good  pasture  until 
weaning  time,  and  the  calf  should  be  wintered  on  grain,  silage,  and  hay. 
When  weaned  and  placed  on  regular  rations,  skim-milk  calves  usually 
advance  rapidly  and  often  overtake  calves  reared  on  whole  milk  to 
such  an  extent  that  they  cannot  be  distinguished  from  the  latter. 

Dual-purpose  type. — Descriptions  of  the  beef  and  dairy  types 
having  been  given  in  detail,  dual-purpose  type  may  be  described  in 
few  words  by  comparisons.  The  true  dual-purpose  type  of  animal  is 
distinguished  from  the  beef  animal  by  certain  well-marked  differences 
in  form  and  appearance.  The  dual-purpose  animal  is  not  so  wide  as 
the  beef  animal,  nor  so  smooth,  and  the  fleshing  is  not  so  thick.  The 
neck  is  longer,  the  withers  are  not  so  wide  and  rounding,  the  middle  is 
less  blocky  and  compact,  and  the  legs  are  longer.  The  udder  receives 
considerable  attention  and  should  be  large,  of  good  texture,  and  of 
good  shape.  The  dual-purpose  cow  should  bear  indications  of  credit- 
able performance  at  the  pail. 

Compared  with  the  dairy  type,  the  dual-purpose  animal  shows 
more  squareness  and  fullness  of  forequarters,  more  width  and  compact- 
ness of  body,  more  fleshing  and  smoothness.  The  spring  of  rib  is  more 
pronounced,  the  back  is  wider,  the  withers  are  thicker,  the  shoulder  is 
heavier  fleshed  and  smoother,  and  the  thigh  and  twist  are  much  more 
heavily  fleshed.  Dual-purpose  cows  that  give  a  generous  milk  flow 
will  carry  less  flesh  during  the  milking  period,  but  when  dry  they  take 
on  flesh  readily.  Their  calves  have  a  reasonably  good  fleshing  when 
fed  for  market,  especially  if  sired  by  a  beef-type  bull. 

When  dual-purpose  cattle  are  brought  into  the  ring  at  fairs  and 
expositions,  it  is  readily  observable  that  marked  variations  in  type 
exist,  ranging  from  near  the  dairy  type  to  the  lower  limits  of  beef  type. 
What  is  regarded  as  a  typical  dual-purpose  animal  by  one  man  will 
not  always  suit  another,  but  will  be  criticised  as  leaning  too  much 
toward  the  beef  type  or  the  dairy  type.  Some  men  accept  a  beef  cow 
with  a  larger  udder  than  usual  as  a  typical  dual-purpose  animal;  others 
have  in  mind  a  dairy  cow  showing  more  beefiness  than  common.  In 
the  show  rings  of  this  country  much  dissatisfaction  has  arisen  over  the 
judging  of  dual-purpose  cattle;  some  judges  have  apparently  awarded 
the  prizes  upon  the  beef  qualities  of  the  animals  shown,  while  other 
judges  have  leaned  almost  as  much  the  other  way.  A  judge  at  one  show 
will  select  certain  animals  as  prize  winners,  and  at  another  show,  with 
the  same  cattle  on  exhibition,  an  almost  complete  reversal  will  be  made 
in  the  awards — hence  the  dissatisfaction.  As  time  goes  on,  breeders 
are  getting  closer  together  in  their  ideals  of  a  dual-purpose  animal, 


Types  and  Maricet  Classes  of  Live  Stock  209 

although  there  can  never  be  the  uniformity  of  ideals  which  prevails 
among  breeders  of  either  beef  or  dairy  cattle.  This  is  true  because 
beef  and  dairy  types  represent  extremes,  while  the  dual-purpose  type 
is  an  avOrage  of  these  two,  or  represents  the  middle  ground. 

Profits  from  dual-purpose  cattle.^In  an  investigation  into  the 
methods  and  cost  of  growing  beef  cattle  in  the  corn-belt  states  in  1914 
and  1915,  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  obtained  596  records 
from  farms  in  Indiana,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  South 
Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas.  ^  Farms  where  cows  were  kept  for 
distinctly  dairy  purposes  or  where  the  herds  were  maintained  only  for 
the  production  and  sale  of  purebred  animals  for  breeding  purposes 
were  omitted.     Records  were  procured  on  14,634  cows  and  621  bulls, 


Fig.  70.— The  dual-purpose  type.  Red  Polled  bull,  Teddy's  Best,  32  times  a 
champion  and  a  very  noted  sire.     Owned  by  Jean  Du  Luth  Farms,  Duluth,  Minn. 

and  on  12,591  calves  produced  from  them,  of  which  2,023  were  fattened 
for  baby  beef.  Six  distinct  practices  in  beef  production  were  noted, 
as  follows: 

Beef. — Farms  where  all  the  cows  are  kept  strictly  for  beef  (not 
including  farms  producing  baby  beef). 

Baby  beef. — Farms  maintaining  breeding  herds  for  the  production 
of  high-grade  calves  which  are  fattened  on  the  same  farm  and  sold  at 
from  12  to  18  months  of  age  as  baby  beef. 

Dual-purpose. — Farms  on  which  all  of  the  cows  are  milked,  and 
either  cream  or  butter-fat  sold,  the  calves  being  weaned  at  birth  and 
raised  on  skim  milk. 


1  Cotton,  Cooper,  Ward,  and  Ray:  Methods  and  Cost  of  Growing  Beef  Cattle 
in  the  Corn  Belt  States,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Rpt.  111. 


210 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


Mixed. — Farms  on  which  the  best  cows  are  milked,  their  calves 
being  weaned  at  birth  and  fed  skim  milk.  Calves  from  the  other  cows 
are  allowed  to  run  with  their  dams  as  in  the  beef  group. 

Partially  milked.— Farms  on  which  the  calves  are  not  wea^.ed,  but 
on  which  a  part  of  the  milk  is  drawn  from  the  cow,  the  calf  taking  the 
remainder. 

Double  nursing. — Farms  where  some  of  the  cows  are  milked  and 
their  calves  given  to  other  cows,  the  latter  raising  two  calves  each. 

The  cost  of  calves  at  weaning  time,  the  cost  of  raising  yearlings, 
and  the  profit  or  loss  on  the  yearlings  was  determined  for  each  of  the 
six  groups.  The  accompanying  table,  showing  the  various  factors  that 
make  up  the  cost  of  producing  a  yearling  and  summarizing  the  results 
of  the  investigation,  indicates  the  economy  of  dual-purpose  herds  as 
beef  producers.  However,  as  this  table  is  studied,  it  is  well  for  the 
reader  to  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  no  profits  were  allowed  for  the 
dairying  practiced  by  the  owners  of  the  dual-purpose,  mixed,  partially- 


Calves  from  dual-purpose  and  beef  herds  compared  in  eosls  and  profits 


Item 

Beef 

» 

Dual- 
purpose 

Mixed 

Partially 
milked 

Double 
nursing 

Number  of  farms 

230 
31.50 
63.83 

120.81 

35.12 
4.79 
30.33 

42.27 

84.9 
20.9 

35.47 
2.26 
.01 
.00 

66 

34.56 
69.50 
158.80 

36.77 

5.39 

31.38 

53.26 

90.7 
25.3 

34.50 
2.29 
.00 
.00 

110 
12.75 
60.01 
84.02 

55.14 
49.07 
6.07 
37.51 

83.9 
10.7 

7.34 
4.02 
9.35 
2.56 

102 
23.47 
65.02 

123.33 

43.95 
24.72 
19.23 
46.79 

87.5 
18.5 

22.29 
2.91 
4.48 
1.11 

65 

14.29 
60.04 
79.45 

42.75 
21.43 
21.32 
34.14 

90.1 
12.6 

23.71 
3.35 
.02 
.00 

22 

17.32 

Average  value  of  bulls. . 

^6  03 

Cost  of  maintaining  the  breeding  herd: 

Gross  cost  of  maintaining  a  cow 

Credits  for  milk  and  manure 

46.50 
33  26 

13.24 

40.53 

Calf  crop: 

Percentage  of  cows  raising  calves  to  wean- 

Number  of  calves  per  bull 

15  0 

Cost  of  raising  a  calf  to  weaning  time: 

Bull  charce 

3  02 

Feed.... ^........ ...... :::::::;::: 

Labor 

.26 

Total  cost  at  weaning  time  (6  to  8 

37.74 

36.79 

23.27 

30.79 

27.08 

Cost  of  raising  a  yearling: 

190 
24.43 
38.20 
12.32 
4.62 
55.14 
1.60 
53.54 
13 
475-500 

53.16 
37.70 

67 

30.20 
37.01 
35.02 

6.02 
78.05 

7.53 
70.52 
15 
834 

70.52 
71.30 

99 

10.57 

23.64 
9.93 
4.92 

38.49 
1.89 

36.60 

13 
350-400 

36.80 
31.17 

96 

18.46 
30.61 
12.01 

4.72 
47.34 

1.48 
45.86 
13 

45.97 
33.85 

57 

11.16 
26.39 
12.21 

4.66 
43.26 

1.54 
41.72 
13 

(') 

41.06 
35.51 

22 

Average  number  of  calves  per  farm 

14.23 
17.82 

10.24 

'  Other  charges 

3  86 

31.92 

Credits  for  manure  and  pork 

1.67 

Net  cost 

30  25 

13 

Average  weight,  pounds 

(3) 

Net  cost,  May  1,  revised  due  to  some  calves 

30.25 

Inventorial  or  farm  value.  May  1 

33.73 

Loss .  . 

15.46 

5.63 

12.12 

5.65 

Gain 

.78 

1 

3.48 

» Includes  labor,  equipment,  interest,  risk,  taxes,  insurance,  and  veterinary  expense. 
"  Not  given,  but  intermediate  between  beef  and  dual-purpose  groups. 
»  Not  given,  but  nearly  as  much  as  in  the  beef  group. 

Figures  in  bold  type  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  baby  beeves  were  carried  along  to  an  age 
sufficient  to  finish  tbem  for  market;  these  figures  cover  a  longer  period  than  in  the  case  of  the  other  calves. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  op  Live  Stock  211 

milked,  and  double-nursing  herds;  instead,  the  returns,  including 
profits,  from  the  sale  of  milk  have  been  used  to  lower  the  cost  of  the 
calf.  Results  based  on  such  a  method  of  cost  accounting  are  some- 
what misleading.  Dairying  was  conducted  at  cost,  the  profits  being 
credited  to  beef  production. 

The  greatest  item  of  expense  in  raising  a  calf  to  weaning  time, 
except  in  the  dual-purpose  group,  was  the  cow  charge,  or  net  cost  of 
keeping  a  cow  a  year.  The  net  cost  of  maintaining  a  cow  varied 
greatly,  depending  largely  upon  the  sale  of  milk  products  from  cows 
that  were  milked.     It  was  therefore  lowest  in  the  dual-purpose  group. 

The  cost  of  the  calf  at  weaning  time  was  lowest  in  the  double- 
nursing  group.  While  the  cow  charge  was  lowest  in  the  dual-purpose 
group,  the  addition  of  the  cost  of  feed  and  labor  for  the  skim-milk 
calves  made  the  cost  of  the  calf  somewhat  greater  than  in  the  double- 
nursing  group. 

The  cost  of  the  calf  at  one  year  was  lowest  in  the  double-nursing 
group. 

The  calves  in  the  dual-purpose  group,  although  poorest  in  merit 
and  value,  ranked  third  in  profit. 

The  calves  in  the  double-nursing  group  were  relatively  of  good 
quality  and  showed  the  greatest  profit. 

The  data  obtained  indicate  that  the  keeping  of  cattle  for  beef 
purposes  alone  is  adapted  to  the  more  extensive  types  of  farming, 
while  the  keeping  of  cattle  primarily  for  beef  purposes,  but  where  an 
income  is  also  obtained  from  milk  products,  is  better  adapted  to  the 
more  intensive  types  of  farming. 

The  averages  would  seem  to  indicate  that  profits  from  raising 
calves  on  corn-belt  farms  are  very  small.  However,  these  facts  must 
be  taken  into  consideration: 

1.  Good  returns  were  obtained  for  a  large  quantity  of  roughage 
which,  had  it  not  been  utilized  by  live  stock,  would  have  been  waste. 

2.  A  home  market  was  provided  for  saleable  crops. 

3.  On  many  farms  a  large  acreage  suitable  to  pasture  only  was 
utilized. 

4.  Profitable  employment  was  provided  for  a  season  of  the  year 
when  labor  otherwise  might  have  been  idle. 

5.  A  return  was  obtained  for  capital  invested  in  equipment  which, 
in  many  instances,  had  it  not  been  utilized  by  live  stock,  would  have 
returned  nothing. 

6.  When  the  farmer  merely  breaks  even  he  has  at  least  made  6 
per  cent  on  the  money  invested  in  the  cattle  business. 


PART  II-SHEEP 

INTRODUCTION 

The  United  States  ranks  as  one  of  the  principal  mutton-producing 
and  wool-growing  countries  of  the  world.  The  sheep  industry  in 
America  dates  back  to  early  times.  It  has  experienced  more  ups  and 
downs,  due  to  changing  conditions  and  varying  prices  than  has  the 
cattle  industry  or  the  hog  industry.  At  the  present  time  the  sheep 
business  is  in  a  transitional  stage.  The  number  and  size  of  flocks  in 
most  of  the  western  range  states  continue  to  decline.  In  the  farming 
states  increased  interest  in  sheep  and  increased  production  are  now 
noticeable.  Lamb  and  wool  production  is  a  profitable  business  at  the 
present  time  and  promises  to  continue  so,  not  only  under  range  condi- 
tions but  also  in  intensive  farming. 

Feed  and  labor  requirements. — F.  R.  Marshall,  formerly  in  charge 
of  sheep  investigations,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  has  pointed 
out  that  sheep  are  markedly  different  from  other  farm  animals  in  their 
requirements  for  feed  and  labor:  ^ 

Lamb  and  wool  production  require  a  smaller  use  of  grain  feeds 
than  is  required  with  other  kinds  of  live-stock  farming.  A  majority 
of  lambs  are  marketed  at  weaning  time  and  without  having  had  any 
feed  other  than  the  milk  of  their  dams  and  a  slight  amount  of  grazing. 
The  lamb  carcass  requires  less  fat  to  render  it  suitable  for  the  table 
than  is  necessary  in  any  other  class  of  meat.  This  fact  adapts  sheep 
raising  to  sections  that  are  not  adapted  to  the  production  of  grains 
but  can  furnish  good  pasturage  and  forage  crops.  Lambs  born  late 
in  the  season,  lambs  raised  by  ewes  which  are  not  good  milkers,  and 
lambs  raised  under  conditions  which  do  not  produce  a  good  milk  flow 
in  the  ewes  go  into  the  hands  of  feeders  and  consume  considerable 
grain,  but  their  finish  is  largely  produced  from  hay  and  other  roughages 
of  comparatively  lower  value.  Breeding  ewes  require  little  grain,  and 
good  fleeces  are  produced  without  the  use  of  concentrated  feeds. 

Sheep  have  been  advocated  on  the  ground  that  no  labor  or  atten- 
tion is  needed.  It  has  been  said  that  they  are  farm  scavengers,  that 
they  will  clear  the  farm  of  weeds.  It  is  true  that  sheep  will  eat  most 
weeds,  and  that  farms  which  have  a  flock  of  sheep  usually  give  evidence 
of  that  fact  in  cleaner  fence  rows  and  corners  and  a  tidier  appearance 
generally.     It  is  also  true  that  sheep  raising  requires  comparatively 


1  Sheep  and  Intensive  Farming,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1917,  pp.  311-320. 
213 


214  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

little  labor.  The  labor  cost  per  dollar's  worth  of  wool  or  lambs  is 
lower  than  in  any  other  farm-animal  product.  It  should  be  emphat- 
ically stated,  however,  that  sheep  will  not  do  well  unless  they  are 
given  constant  attention  and  the  care  necessary  to  maintain  thrift,  yet 
the  amount  of  work  required  is  by  no  means  heavy  except  at  lambing 
and  shearing  time.  One  competent  man  can  care  for  from  300  to  500 
ewes  during  winter. 

Sheep  raising,  properly  managed,  is  profitable  on  the  corn-belt 
farm,  while  the  New  England  states,  and  large  areas  of  cut-over  timber 
lands  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota  are  suitable  for  sheep  as 
soon  as  provision  is  made  for  the  production  of  winter  feed.  Many 
millions  of  acres  in  this  country  not  now  in  farms  and  which  are  largely 
unfit  for  the  plow  and  not  suitable  for  grazing  by  other  animals,  will 
eventually  return  a  revenue  in  lambs  and  wool.  The  sheep's  ability  to 
prosper  on  grass  and  roughage,  with  little  grain,  gives  it  first  call  under 
these  conditions. 

The  advantages  of  sheep,  as  compared  to  other  live  stock  on  the 
farm,  have  been  most  ably  presented  by  the  late  John  A.  Craig.  ^  He 
calls  attention  to  the  following: 

1.  Compared  with  cattle,  sheep  produce  more  liberally  in  propor- 
tion to  what  they  consume.  They  consume  more  feed  in  proportion 
to  their  weight,  and  a  larger  proportion  of  what  is  eaten  goes  into  in- 
crease. However,  sheep  are  not  so  well  fitted  as  cattle  to  utilize  large 
quantities  of  coarse  roughage. 

2.  The  form  in  which  sheep  manure  is  dropped  and  the  way  it 
is  tramped  into  the  soil  insure  a  smaller  waste  than  is  possible  under 
any  other  system  of  stock  farming.  The  sheep's  habit  of  lying  upon 
the  highest  spot  of  the  field  or  pasture  leaves  the  larger  part  of  the 
droppings  at  the  place  where  they  are  most  needed. 

3.  Sheep  farming  utilizes  what  would  be  otherwise  waste4and.^ 

4.  They  convert  into  mutton  and  wool  much  material  that  can- 
not be  utilized  by  other  animals.  This  is  particularly  true  of  grain  lost 
in  stubble.  Volunteer  growth  or  aftermath  too  scanty  for  other  stock 
is  just  suited  to  the  grazing  habits  of  sheep. 

5.  Sheep  are  the  best  weed  destroyers.  Of  the  numerous  plants 
regarded  as  weeds,  cattle  and  horses  eat  about  50  per  cent,  while  sheep 
eat  over  90  per  cent  of  them. 

6.  The  income  from  wool  and  that  from  the  lambs  and  mutton 
come  in  different  parts  of  the  year,  and  it  seldom  happens  that  both 
products  sell  at  bottom  prices  the  same  year. 

7.  The  wool  clip  is  easily  stored  with  practically  no  waste  or 
deterioration  if  it  is  desirable  to  hold  for  a  higher  price. 


^  Sheep  Farming  in  North  America,  pp.  3-8. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  215 

8.  The  returns  come  quickly.  Lambs  may  be  marketed  eight 
months  after  the  ewes  are  bred.  1 0-lf  * 

9.  The  ewe's  fleece  usually  pays  for  her  keep.  This  puts  the  fat 
lamb  on  the  market  at  low  cost  of  production. 

10.  With  good  management,  the  increase  in  the  flock  may  be 
safely  counted  at  one  hundred  per  cent. 

Fine,  medium,  and  long-wool  classes  of  sheep. — Sheep  breeders 
in  the  various  countries  have  developed  two  distinct  kinds  of  sheep — 
mutton  sheep  and  wool  sheep,  the  latter  being  commonly  called  fine- 
wool  sheep.  Mutton  sheep  naturally  divide  into  two  classes  known 
as  (1)  long-  or  coarse- wool  sheep,  and  (2)  medium-  or  middle- wool 
sheep. 

Fine- wool  sheep  bear  wool  that  is  IJ/^  to  4  inches  long  after  twelve 
months'  growth,  medium-wool  fleeces  vary  in  length  of  fiber  from  2  to 
5  inches,  and  the  long-wool  fiber  measures  5  to  12  inches.  The  fiber 
of  the  fine- wool  fleece  is  very  fine  in  diameter  and  has  a  large  number 
of  waves  or  crimps  to  the  inch,  usually  from  16  to  22.  The  long-wool 
fiber  is  coarse  and  lashy,  being  rather  straight  and  hairy  in  appearance. 
The  fiber  of  the  medium-wool  fleece  occupies  a  position  between  the 
fine-  and  long-wool  fibers,  but  with  fewer  crimps  per  inch  than  the 
fiber  of  fine- wool  sheep. 

The  three  classes  are  separated  by  other  marked  differences  besides 
length  and  fineness  of  wool.  Fine- wool  sheep  are  usually  of  small  or 
medium  size,  and  have  a  rather  narrow  form,  long  neck,  uneven  top 
line,  white  face,  more  or  less  wrinkled  skin,  a  compact  fleece  often  dark 
on  the  exterior,  poor  mutton  qualities,  and  active  dispositions.  Med- 
ium-wool sheep  are  medium  to  large  in  size,  have  a  wide,  compact, 
blocky,  meat-producing  form,  straight  top  line,  usually  have  brown 
faces,  a  smooth  skin,  a  compact  fleece  that  is  light  colored  on  the 
exterior,  thick  flesh,  excellent  mutton  qualities,  and  active  dispositions. 
Long-wool  sheep  are  large,  with  blocky  bodies,  straight  lines,  rather 
upstanding,  white  face,  smooth  skin,  shaggy  light-colored  fleeces  hang- 
ing in  long  locks  or  curls,  thick  but  somewhat  coarse  flesh,  lay  on  much 
fat,  and  are  more  sluggish  and  indolent  in  their  habits. 

Types,  classes,  and  breeds  of  sheep. — Although  variations  in 
fleece,  size,  form,  and  other  points  permit  the  division  of  all  sheep  into 
three  groups,  there  are  at  basis  only  two  types  of  sheep — mutton  type, 
and  fine-wool  type.  The  former  includes  both  the  long-  and  medium- 
wool  groups.  Following  is  the  classification  of  the  breeds  according 
to  type,  together  with  the  number  of  registered  purebreds  of  each  breed 
in  the  United  States  on  January  1, 1920,  as  reported  by  the  1920  census: 


216 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


Type 

Class 

fLong  wool 

UTTON  Type 

Medium  wool 

Fine-Wool  Type  .  .   \  Fine  wool . 


Breed  Number 

rCotswold  1 f  3  ) 

I  Lincoln 13,903 

I  Leicester 767 

[Romney  Marsh ( ^ ) 

Shropshire 124,454 

Hampshire  Down 51 ,813 

Oxford  Down 16,601 

Dorset  Horn 8,458 

Southdown. 8,451 

Cheviot Wrlfk' 3,000 

Suffolk 805 

Tunis (3) 

Corriedale ( » ) 

Rambouillet 106,849 

Delaine  Merino     \  rg  ^on 

American  Merino  / oy,yju 

All  other  = 68,483 


Total 463,504 

'  Though  not  separately  reported  by  the  1920  census,  Cotswolds  are  the  most  numerous  breed  of 
long-wool  sheep  in  the  United  States. 

2  Includes  Cotswolds,  Romney  Marsh,  Tunis,  Corriedale,  and  other  breeds. 
'  Not  separately  reported. 

All  of  these  breeds  except  the  Merinos,  the  Corriedale,  and  the 
Tunis,  originated  in  Great  Britain.  The  American  Merino  and  Delaine 
Merino  were  developed  in  the  United  States,  the  Rambouillet  in  France, 
the  Corriedale  in  New  Zealand,  and  the  Tunis  in  the  province  of  Tunis 
in  northern  Africa. 

The  mutton-type  sheep  is  chiefly  valued  on  account  of  its  ability 
to  make  good  mutton  economically,  although  the  wool-producing 
ability  of  the  mutton-type  sheep  constitutes  an  important  part  of  its 
value  to  the  farmer.  Some  of  the  best  mutton-producing  breeds  have 
failed  to  gain  much  popularity  mainly  because  of  their  deficiency  as 
wool  producers.  It  is  not  expected  that  one  type  of  sheep  will  excel 
in  both  mutton  and  wool  production,  any  more  than  one  type  of  cattle 
is  expected  to  excel  in  both  beef  and  milk  production,  yet  it  is  important 
that  the  mutton-tj^De  sheep  grow  a  fleece  of  good  density,  length, 
weight,  and  quality. 

The  fine-wool  type  is  mainly  a  wool  proposition.  The  American 
Merino  is  of  no  more  value  for  mutton  than  are  dairy  cattle  for  beef. 
The  Delaine  Merino  and  Rambouillet  have  better  mutton  qualities, 
though  not  equaling  the  mutton  breeds  in  this  respect,  and  this  largely 
explains  their  greater  popularity  as  compared  to  the  American  Merino. 

Combined  wool-and-mutton  type  most  popular. — The  American 
farmer,  and  likewise  the  rangeman,  has  declared  that  the  most  profit- 
able sheep  to  grow  in  this  country  is,  as  a  rule,  a  combined  wool-and- 
mutton  type.  Among  the  mutton  breeds,  and  also  among  the  fine- 
wool  breeds,  those  which  yield  the  most  and  best  of  both  mutton  and 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  217 

wool  rank  highest  in  popularity,  while  those  breeds  which  are  more 
highly  speciaHzed  so  as  to  be  superior  in  one  line  of  production  and 
very  inferior  in  the  other  are  not  so  popular.  The  popularity  of  a 
breed  depends  also  upon  other  factors  such  as  constitutional  vigor, 
prolificacy,  quietness  of  disposition,  feeding  qualities,  grazing  qualities, 
ease  of  shearing,  and  early  maturity,  but  first  and  fundamentally  the 
breed  must  produce  both  a  good  carcass  and  a  good  fleece  if  it  is  to  be 
popular  with  the  farmer.  Every  breed  has  its  place,  however,  and  to 
eliminate  all  except  two  or  three  breeds  from  American  farms  and 
ranches  would  be  poor  policy.  Some  of  the  less  popular  breeds  are 
highly  valued  for  producing  rams  to  use  in  cross-breeding  or  grading-up 
to  produce  the  desired  type.  Other  less  popular  breeds  have  special 
features  which  give  them  the  preference  under  certain  special  condi- 
tions of  climate,  food  supply,  or  method  of  management. 

Definitions  of  Sheep  Terms 

Ram  or  buck. — Breeding  male,  any  age. 

Ewe. — The  female,  any  age. 

Lamb. — Any  sheep  under  twelve  months  of  age. 

Wether. — Unsexed  male,  castrated  when  a  young  lamb.  The  best 
age  to  castrate  lambs  is  from  7  to  10  days  old  at  the  same  time  they  are 
docked. 

Stag. — Unsexed  male,  castrated  when  mature  or  so  far  advanced 
toward  maturity  that  masculinity  is  plainly  evident  in  head,  neck,  and 
forequarters.     This  constitutes  coarseness  in  a  market  animal. 

Shearling. — A  yearling.  Two-tooth.~A  yearling. 

Two-shear. — A  two-year-old.  Four-tooth. — A  two-year-old. 

Show  Yard  Classification  by  Ages 

The  base  date  for  classifying  sheep  by  ages  is  September  1,  and  the 
classes  by  ages  are  as  follows: 

Lamb  class. — Animals  are  eligible  to  this  class  that  were  dropped 
on  or  after  September  1  of  the  preceding  year. 

Yearling  class. — Dropped  between  (and  including)  September  1 
of  the  second  preceding  year  and  August  31  of  the  preceding  year. 

Two  years  old  and  over  (aged)  class. — Dropped  before  September  1 
of  the  second  preceding  year. 

Champion. — Best  animal  any  age. 

Grand  champion. — Best  animal  any  age  or  breed. 

For  example,  during  the  summer,  fall,  and  winter  show  season  of 
1923,  lambs  are  those  animals  dropped  on  or  after  September  1,  1922; 
yearlings,  between  September  1,  1921,  and  August  31,  1922;  and  aged 
animals  two  years  old  and  over  are  those  dropped  prior  to  September 
1,  1921. 


CHAPTER  XV 
MUTTON  TYPE 

Although  the  breeds  of  sheep  classed  as  mutton  breeds  may  be 
grouped  into  two  distinct  classes — long-wooled  and  middle-wooled — 
and  although  the  breeds  within  each  class  differ  considerably  in  color 
markings,  fleece,  and  appearance,  nevertheless  all  of  them  belong  to 
the  mutton  type.  The  following  description  applies  particularly  to 
sheep  or  lambs  fattened  for  the  market. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  mutton-type  sheep  is  almost 
identical  with  the  beef  type  of  cattle.  The  mutton  sheep  should  be 
markedly  short  legged,  broad,  deep,  and  symmetrical.  The  top  line 
and  underline  should  be  straight  and  parallel,  and  the  top  should  be 
broad  and  level  from  end  to  end.  The  side  lines  should  be  straight, 
and  the  middle  wide  and  deep,  yet  neat  and  trim.  Leggy  and  rangy 
conformations  are  as  objectionable  in  mutton  sheep  as  in  beef  cattle. 
There  should  be  pronounced  blockiness  of  conformation,  combined  with 
neatness,  fullness,  and  great  smoothness  of  outline. 

The  head  should  be  short  and  broad,  the  mouth  of  ample  width, 
the  nostrils  large,  the  face  short,  the  eyes  prominent  and  clear,  the  fore- 
head broad,  and  the  ears  rather  fine,  short,  neatly  attached,  and  well 
carried.  The  mutton  type  does  not  have  horns  as  a  rule,  the  Dorset 
breed  being  the  only  exception.  The  head  should  have  a  clean-cut 
appearance,  indicative  of  quality  and  good  breeding. 

The  neck  should  be  short  and  plump,  arched,  trim  at  the  throat, 
and  should  join  the  shoulders  full  and  smooth. 

The  shoulders  should  be  compact,  smooth,  and  nicely  covered 
over  with  flesh,  making  the  forequarters  very  even  and  smooth.  The 
tops  of  the  shoulders  should  come  fairly  well  together  and  be  rounded 
over  with  flesh. 

The  breast  ought  to  be  prominent,  broad,  and  filled  out  plump 
with  flesh.  A  wide  breast  is  an  evidence  of  strong  constitution,  and 
plumpness  of  this  part  is  one  of  the  indications  of  proper  finish  and 
fatness  in  the  market  sheep. 

The  chest  should  be  very  wide  and  deep,  and  have  a  full  heart- 
girth.  There  should  be  considerable  distance  between  the  front  legs, 
and  also  between  the  shoulders,  and  no  depression  of  the  side  should 
exist  just  back  of  the  shoulder.  The  front  flanks  should  carry  down 
deep  and  be  well  filled  out. 

218 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


219 


The  front  legs  should  be  short  and  straight,  the  shanks  fine,  and 
the  joints  not  too  large.  The  knees  show  some  tendency  to  come  to- 
gether, but  this  should  not  be  marked.  Attention  should  be  given  to 
the  pasterns  which  should  carry  up  strong,  and  to  the  feet  which  should 
be  well  developed,  strong,  and  point  directly  forward. 

The  back  furnishes  one  of  the  valuable  cuts  of  the  carcass.  It 
should  be  very  wide,  short,  and  straight,  and  should  be  thickly,  firmly, 
and  evenly  fleshed.  When  the  hand  is  pressed  down  upon  the  back 
it  should  exhibit  no  dip  or  weakness,  but  carry  up  level  and  strong. 
In  thin  sheep  the  backbone  is  marked  by  a  sharp  ridge;  in  well-fattened 
animals  the  back  is  smooth,  the  backbone  being  covered;  while  in  very 
fat  animals  the  flesh  may  be  thickened  on  either  side  of  the  middle  line 


2.4 


Mouth 

Nostril 

Face 

Eye 

Forehead 

Ear 

Neck 


Fig.  71.— Points  of  the  sheep. 


8.  Shoulder 

9.  Breast 

0.  Fore  leg 

1.  Fore  flank 

2.  Top  of  shoulders 

3.  Back 


Loin 

Hip 

Rump 

Thigh 

Hind  leg 

Pastern 


26 


14.     Ribs 


18  and  24.     Leg  of  mutton 


21.  Dew  claw 

22.  Foot 

23.  Dock 

24.  Twist 

25.  Hind  flank 
Belly 


to  such  an  extent  that  a  groove  is  found  down  the  middle  of  the  back 
instead  of  a  ridge. 

The  ribs  must  have  a  strong  arch  to  give  width  to  the  back,  and 
they  should  carry  down  deep  to  afford  a  large  chest  and  good  feeding 
capacity.  They  should  be  placed  close  together  along  the  side,  the 
last  pair  coming  close  to  the  hips.  The  covering  of  flesh  on  the  ribs 
should  be  thick,  even,  and  firm.  The  side  should  be  straight  and  even, 
the  belly  should  be  straight  and  trim,  and  the  hind  flanks  should  be 
well  let  down. 


220  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

The  loin  yields  the  highest  priced  cut  of  the  carcass.  Like  the 
back,  it  should  be  very  wide,  straight,  strong,  and  covered  evenly  with 
thick,  firm  flesh.  The  backbone  should  be  covered.  Sheep  may  be 
well  covered  over  the  back  and  poorly  covered  over  the  loin,  therefore 
careful  handling  all  along  the  top  is  necessary  in  order  to  judge  of  the 
fleshing. 

The  hips  should  not  be  prominent;  they  should  be  well  laid  in  and 
smoothly  covered  over  with  flesh. 

The  rump  ought  to  be  long,  level,  and  wide,  the  top  line  carrying 
out  straight  to  the  end  of  the  body.  One  of  the  most  common  faults 
of  mutton  sheep  is  a  poorly  shaped  hindquarter,  the  rump  frequently 


Fig.  72.^Correct  type  in  the  fat  wether.  Grade  Shropshire  yearling  wether, 
grand  champion  at  the  1913  International.  Bred,  fitted,  and  shown  by  J.  and  D.  J. 
Campbell,  Woodville,  Ont.,  Can.  Neat  in  form,  excellent  in  quality,  and  thickly 
and  firmly  fleshed.  His  fatness,  trim  middle,  and  good  quality  insure  a  high  dressing 
percentage.     This  sheep  belongs  to  the  medium-wool  class. 

rounding  off  or  drooping  on  top,  and  the  sides  cutting  in  to  give  a 
peaked  conformation.  Squareness  and  fullness  should  characterize  the 
hindquarter.  The  covering  of  flesh  should  be  abundant,  yet  smooth 
and  free  from  softness  or  bunches  of  gobby  fat. 

The  thighs  and  twist,  often  called  the  "leg  of  mutton,"  should  be 
broad  and  plump  as  viewed  from  the  rear,  and  the  fleshing  should  carry 
well  down  toward  the  hocks,  as  in  beef  cattle.  The  leg  of  mutton, 
loin,  and  back  constitute  the  valuable  parts  of  the  carcass,  and  they 
must  carry  a  high  degree  of  fleshing.     Wide  variations  in  the  develop- 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  221 

ment  of  thigh  and  twist  will  be  found,  although  a  maximum  develop- 
ment is  always  demanded. 

The  hocks  and  hind  legs  should  be  strong  and  placed  well  apart. 
When  the  hocks  are  close  together,  the  thigh  and  twist  usually  lack  a 
full  development.  Crooked,  weak  hocks,  either  badly  sickled  or  bowed, 
are  rather  common  and  are  very  undesirable.  The  legs  should  be  short 
and  straight,  and  show  refinement  of  bone  and  joints.  The  hind 
pasterns  are  also  given  attention  in  judging,  for  it  is  by  no  means  un- 
common to  find  them  broken  down  and  weak  so  as  to  impair  the  use- 
fulness of  the  animal  to  a  marked  degree.  They  should  carry  up  strong, 
so  as  to  bring  the  weight  full  on  the  toes. 

The  skin  should  be  of  a  bright  pink  color  and  free  from  dark- 
colored  spots.  The  pink  color  is  an  indication  of  health  and  thrift, 
while  a  white  or  bluish  color  shows  an  unthrifty  condition.  Some 
breeds  excel  in  this  respect,  and  others  characteristically  show  a  rather 
dark  color  due  to  the  presence  of  pigment  in  the  skin,  in  which  case 
the  dark  color  is  not  necessarily  an  evidence  of  unthriftiness.  The 
dark-faced  breeds  often  have  a  pigmented  skin  over  the  body,  and  with 
this  fault  is  often  associated  the  fault  of  having  black  fibers  in  the  fleece. 

The  quality  of  the  mutton-type  sheep  is  shown  by  the  fineness  of 
the  head  and  bone,  fineness  of  the  wool,  and  fineness  and  softness  of 
the  hair  on  the  face  and  legs.  Quality  is  also  shown  by  the  smoothness 
of  the  animal,  both  in  frame  and  in  fleshing.  Coarse  shoulders,  an 
angular  build,  and  uneven  flesh  show  lack  of  quality  in  a  mutton  sheep. 
These  are  important  features  in  either  breeding  or  fat  sheep.  Quality 
and  good  breeding  are  usually  associated.  Well-bred  animals  respond 
best  when  fed  and  fattened  for  the  market.  The  butcher  likes  quality 
because  it  insures  high  quality  of  meat,  and  indicates  little  waste  when 
the  sheep  is  killed  and  dressed.  A  sheep  of  good  quality  yields  an 
attractive  carcass  with  smooth,  even  outlines. 

The  condition,  or  fatness,  of  a  sheep  may  be  determined  by  an 
examination  of  six  points,  these  being  the  spinal  covering,  the  neck,  the 
breast,  the  fore  flank,  the  dock,  and  the  purse.  ^  The  first  of  these  is 
by  far  the  most  important,  as  it  insures  a  good  finish  where  it  is  most 
valuable,  namely  in  the  high-priced  cuts.  The  covering  over  the  back 
and  loin  should  be  such  that  the  top  is  smooth  and  the  backbone  not 
easily  felt.  The  neck  and  breast  of  a  well-finished  sheep  are  plump, 
the  fore  flank  is  well  filled,  the  dock  is  found  thick  when  grasped  in 
the  fingers,  and  the  purse  is  well  filled  with  fat.  Sheep  that  have  been 
over-fed  often  have  bunches  of  soft  fat  at  the  end  of  the  rump,  and  a 
blubbery  mass  of  fat  at  the  fore  flank.     Sheep  that  have  much  loose 


iThe  purse  is  the  scrotum  of  the  wether  and  its  content  of  fat,  the  same  as  the 
cod  of  the  steer. 


222 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


fat  at  the  fore  flank  are  referred  to  as  "slipped,"  it  being  commonly, 
but  erroneously,  supposed  that  this  condition  is  due  to  a  very  heavy 
formation  of  fat  along  the  back  which  becomes  excessive  and  slips 
down  the  ribs  to  the  fore  flank.  The  butcher  sharply  discriminates 
against  such  an  excessively  fat  condition,  and  the  breeder  has  found 
that  slipped  ewes  are  frequently  barren.  The  market  wants  a  thick, 
firm  covering.  Softness  indicates  a  "wasty"  carcass.  Lambs  very 
seldom  become  too  fat,  but  yearlings  and  older  sheep  may  be  easily 
fed  until  they  become  soft  and  overdone. 


biu.    1 3. — Long-wool  sheep.     Lincoln  ram,  champion  at  the  Iowa  State  Fair, 
owned  by  A.  W.  Arnold,  Galesville,  Wis. 


The  style  which  some  mutton  sheep  possess  has  an  importance 
similar  to  style  in  beef  cattle.  Furthermore,  feeders  testify  that  the 
lamb  or  wether  with  stylish  appearance  and  sprightly  gait  is  usually 
vigorous  and  a  good  feeder,  style  being  to  some  extent  an  evidence  of 
constitutional  vigor  and  thrift. 

The  fleece  of  the  mutton-type  sheep  is  of  secondary  importance, 
yet  constitutes  an  important  item  of  value.  The  value  of  the  fleece 
depends  upon  its  length,  weight,  quality,  and  uniformity.  Weight  of 
fleece  depends  upon  covering,  density,  length  of  staple,  and  the  amount 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  223 

of  oil,  or  grease,  called  "yolk."  The  quality  of  fleece  refers  in  a  strict 
sense  only  to  fineness  of  fiber,  but  in  a  general  way  may  also  include 
softness,  soundness,  luster,  color,  cleanness,  purity,  and  freeness. 

The  covering  of  wool  has  reference  to  the  completeness  of  covering 
over  all  parts  of  the  body.  Some  animals  are  very  devoid  of  wool  on 
the  belly  and  around  the  flanks.  The  breeds  differ  widely  in  the  extent 
to  which  the  poll,  ears,  face,  and  legs  are  covered  with  wool,  such 
features  forming  a  prominent  part  of  some  breed  types.  The  tend- 
ency in  recent  years,  especially  with  some  breeds,  has  been  to  secure 
a  more  complete  covering  of  wool,  and  thus  produce  a  fleece  of  some- 
what more  weight.  In  all  breeds,  the  under  parts  of  the  body,  includ- 
ing the  scrotum  of  the  ram,  should  be  well  wooled. 

A  dense  fleece  is  one  that  is  compact,  or  has  a  large  number  of 
fibers  growing  on  a  square  inch  of  skin.  As  much  density  is  desired 
as  is  possible  to  attain. 

The  length  of  fiber  varies  greatly  among  the  mutton  breeds,  so 
that  it  is  diflficult  to  fix  requirements  for  length  of  fleece  for  the  mutton 
type  in  general.  However,  a  length  of  less  than  3  inches  for  a  year's 
growth  should  subject  a  mutton-type  animal  to  criticism,  and  if  it  is 
less  than  ^Yi  inches  the  wool  sells  at  a  lower  price  per  pound  on  the 
wool  market,  as  it  is  then  not  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  worsted 
cloth.  As  a  rule,  the  longest  fleeces  are  the  coarsest  and  most  lacking 
in  density;  maximums  of  fineness,  length,  and  density  cannot  be  se- 
cured in  one  fleece.  The  medium-wool  breeds  vary  in  length  of  staple 
from  2  to  5  inches,  while  the  long-wool  breeds  vary  from  5  to  12 
inches. 

The  yolk  is  a  variable  feature  and  a  highly  important  one.  It  is 
an  oily  substance  secreted  by  glands  in  the  skin,  and  passes  out  over 
the  fibers,  giving  them  an  oily  coating  that  is  valuable  because  it  makes 
the  wool  soft,  protects  and  preserves  the  fibers,  and,  by  causing  the 
fibers  to  lie  even  and  regular,  insures  against  matting,  or  "cotting,"  of 
the  fleece.  A  plentiful  supply  of  yolk  also  tends  to  prevent  the  en- 
trance of  dust,  chaff,  and  other  foreign  material  into  the  fleece.  Inci- 
dentally, the  yolk  adds  weight  to  the  wool,  although  an  excessive 
amount  of  oil  that  merely  adds  weight  to  the  fleece  is  not  desirable. 
The  yolk  should  be  in  a  fluid  condition  and  should  be  uniformly  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  fleece  from  skin  to  tip  of  fiber.  It  should  not 
be  so  abundant  as  to  collect  in  drops  in  the  fieece,  nor  should  any  flakes 
of  dried  yolk  be  in  evidence.  The  yolk  is  frequently  referred  to  as  the 
"grease"  or  "oil." 

The  fineness  of  fiber,  from  the  earliest  days  of  wool  growing,  has 
been  esteemed  one  of  the  most  important  requirements  of  wool.  It 
varies  a  great  deal  among  the  breeds  of  mutton  sheep,  and  also  among 


224 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


the  individuals  within  a  breed.  It  is  not  expected  that  the  mutton 
tjrpe  will  produce  a  fiber  with  the  high  degree  of  fineness  shown  by  the 
Merinos,  yet  as  much  fineness  is  wanted  as  may  be  had  without  sacrifice 
of  weight  or  quantity  of  fleece.  The  crimp,  or  waved  condition,  of 
wool  furnishes  an  easy  and  accurate  measure  of  fineness.  All  wool  is 
more  or  less  crimped,  and  it  is  a  fact  that  the  finest  wools  are  finely 
crimped,  that  is,  have  a  large  number  of  crimps  per  inch,  while  the 
coarsest  wools  are  almost  devoid  of  crimp,  being  lashy  or  broadly  waved. 
The  crimp  of  the  medium-wool  fleece  should  be  fine,  pronounced,  and 
uniform  from  skin  to  tip  of  fiber.     A  single  fleece  yields  several  sorts 


Fig.  74. — An  International  grand  champion.  Southdown  wether  bred,  fed, 
and  exhibited  by  Robert  McEwen,  London,  Ont.,  Can.,  grand  champion  at  the  1922 
International.  This  wether  was  remarkably  good  in  firmness,  evenness,  and  thick- 
ness of  flesh,  being  a  great  "handler."  The  photograph  shows  him  to  be  very  good 
also  in  form  and  quality. 


of  wool,  differing  considerably  in  fineness.  The  finest  wool  grows  on 
the  belly,  shoulders,  and  back;  that  next  in  fineness,  on  the  neck,  breast, 
and  along  the  sides,  while  the  coarsest  wool  is  found  on  the  thighs  and 
lower  parts  of  the  legs. 

Wool  that  has  softness,  yet  is  firm  and  elastic,  is  far  more  valuable 
than  that  which  is  dry,  stiff,  and  harsh.  On  the  other  hand,  mushy 
wool  having  a  soft,  lifeless  feel  with  no  recoil  when  handled  is  very 
often  lacking  in  strength.     Softness  depends  upon  fineness  of  fiber  and 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


225 


amount  of  yolk.  Ill  health,  exposure  to  rough  weather,  or  lack  of  feed 
results  in  loss  of  softness. 

The  soundness  of  wool  refers  to  its  freedom  from  weak  spots. 
Sickness,  a  sudden  shock  from  a  blizzard,  lack  of  feed,  a  rapid  change 
from  green  to  dry  feed,  or  the  reverse,  and  over-feeding  often  cause 
the  secretion  of  wool  to  be  lessened  for  a  time,  thus  producing  tender 
wool.  Under  the  microscope  the  fibers  are  found  to  be  narrow  in  those 
parts  produced  under  adverse  conditions.  Yarn  made  from  such  wool 
will  be  lacking  in  strength.  Sickness  will  often  cause  a  distinct  break 
in  the  fiber  throughout  the  fleece.     (See  Fig.  113.) 

Wool  is  said  to  have  luster  when  the  fibers  glisten  as  though  thinly 
varnished.  This  feature  is  especially  prized  in  long-wooled  sheep.  A 
luster  wool  takes  a  dye  more  readily  than  does  a  dull,  or  lusterless, 


Fig.  75. — The  mutton  type.  Note  the  wide  breasts,  short  legs,  short  necks, 
and  nicely  proportioned  heads  of  these  Southdown  yearling  ewes. 

wool.  Furthermore,  the  luster  is  plainly  apparent  in  the  finished  cloth, 
improving  its  appearance. 

The  color  of  the  wool  fiber  should  be  a  clear  white.  The  occurrence 
of  brown  or  black  fibers  mixed  in  the  fleece  subjects  the  animal  to 
much  criticism.  Such  wools  cannot  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
white  goods  or  those  of  light  shades.  Unless  the  fiber  has  perfect 
whiteness,  a  rich,  brilliant  dye  cannot  be  secured  by  the  manufacturer. 

As  regards  cleanness,  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  fleeces  are  found, 
ranging  from  those  above  criticism,  to  those  that  are  a  mass  of  burs, 
sand,  bits  of  straw,  manure,  and  other  rubbish — the  whole  fleece  being 
matted  together  and  constituting  a  product  of  no  commercial  value. 
Cleanness  depends  mostly  upon  the  conditions  under  which  the  sheep 


226 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


are  kept,  although  some  fleeces,  on  account  of  their  oihness  and  density, 
tend  to  keep  free  from  foreign  material,  while  others,  on  account  of 
their  open,  dry,  fluffy  character,  offer  no  resistance  to  the  entrance  of 
foreign  matter. 

By  purity  of  fleece  is  meant  its  freedom  from  hair,  called  "kemp," 
and  from  dead  fibers.  With  unfavorable  conditions  of  keep  and  in- 
ferior breeding  there  is  often  a  reversion  of  the  fleece  to  the  covering 
worn  by  early  sheep;  that  is,  hair  begins  to  appear  in  place  of  wool. 
Dead  fibers  and  kemp  do  not  absorb  dyes,  hence  they  injure  the  cloths 
into  which  they  find  their  way. 


Fig.  76. — Determining  the  age  of  sheep  from  the  teeth.  Upper  left,  lamb;  all 
the  teeth  being  temporary  or  milk  teeth.  Lower  left,  yearling;  center  pair  of  tem- 
porary incisors  replaced  by  larger  permanent  incisors.  Upper  right,  two-year-old: 
two  pairs  of  permanent  incisors.  Lower  right,  four-year-old;  four  pairs  of  permanent 
incisors.  The  lamb  and  yearling  were  photographed  directly  from  in  front.  The 
two-year-old  and  four-year-old  were  photographed  to  show  the  side  of  the  mouth. 
The  photographs  were  not  made  to  the  same  scale. 


The  fleece  is  said  to  have  freeness  when  the  locks  and  fibers  are 
not  entangled,  but  part  off  readily  from  one  another.  When  the  fibers 
are  tangled,  or  matted  together,  the  fleece  is  said  to  be  "cotted." 

A  fleece  with  uniformity  is  one^  having  sameness  in  character 
throughout.  Although  there  is  a  natural  tendency  for  the  wool  on 
different  parts  to  vary  in  density,  length,  and  fineness,  the  aim  of  the 
breeder  is  to  produce  a  fleece  as  nearly  uniform  throughout  as  possible. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  227 

Age  from  the  teeth. — The  teeth  are  a  fairly  reliable  indication  of 
the  age  of  a  sheep.  The  lamb  has  eight  temporary  incisors,  or  milk 
teeth,  in  the  lower  jaw.  There  are  no  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw.  At 
14  months  of  age,  the  middle  pair  of  milk  teeth  is  supplanted  by  a  pair 
of  larger,  permanent  incisors.  At  2  years,  the  second  pair  of  permanent 
incisors  appears;  at  3  years,  there  are  three  pairs;  and  at  4  years,  all 
eight  permanent  incisors  are  in  place.  At  five  years,  the  teeth  show 
more  width  between,  and  at  six,  the  corner  teeth  may  be  broken  out 
or  the  mouth  may  show  signs  of  wear.  Broken-mouthed  sheep  have 
their  usefulness  much  impaired,  and  should  not  be  kept  unless  for 
special  reasons.     (See  Fig.  76.) 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  MUTTON  CARCASS  AND  THE  PELT 

Mutton  and  lamb  supply  a  wealthier  class  of  consumers  than  beef, 
pork,  or  veal.  Lamb  is  ordinarily  considered  something  of  a  delicacy, 
while  beef  and  pork  are  looked  upon  as  staple  articles  of  food.  The 
proper  handling  of  mutton  and  lamb  necessitates  more  careful  and 
quick  slaughtering  than  is  required  in  the  case  of  beef  or  pork,  and  good 
refrigeration  facilities  are  also  very  essential.  The  public  taste  for 
mutton  and  lamb  was  not  created  until  the  development  of  the  re- 
frigerator car  nor  until  the  erection  of  large-scale  chill  rooms  was  made 
possible  by  artificial  refrigeration.  The  year  1875  marked  the  advent 
of  these  great  aids  to  the  packing  business.  Mutton  differs  from  pork 
and  beef  in  that  it  is  almost  entirely  a  fresh  meat  product  and  does  not 
lend  itself  to  salting,  pickling,  smoking,  or  drying  as  do  pork  and  beef. 
Hence  mutton  became  a  world  commodity  only  after  the  development 
of  artificial  refrigeration  and  refrigerated  transportation.  Still  another 
reason  for  the  comparatively  recent  demand  for  mutton  and  lamb  is 
found  in  the  fact  that,  up  to  1870,  the  great  majority  of  all  sheep  in 
America  were  either  purebred  or  grade  Merinos.  Good  mutton  be- 
came plentiful  only  after  the  use  of  mutton  rams  became  general  on 
farms  and  ranges.  Lamb  is  usually  superior  to  mature  mutton  in 
flavor  and  general  palatability,  and  the  demand  for  lamb  far  exceeds 
the  demand  for  mutton;  the  wholesale  trade  consists  of  two  or  three 
times  as  much  lamb  as  mutton. 

Slaughtering. — Sheep  purchased  by  packers  are  driven  to  the 
packing  plant  and  allowed  to  rest  a  few  hours,  because  animals  killed 
while  in  an  excited  condition  or  immediately  after  exercise  do  not  bleed 
out  thoroughly.  They  are  then  driven  into  a  small  shackling  pen,  and 
a  shackle  is  placed  around  the  hind  leg.  Two  at  a  time,  the  sheep  are 
raised  by  a  large  revolving  wheel  to  a  point  overhead  where  the  shackle 
automatically  unhooks  from  the  wheel  and  starts  down  a  gently  in- 
clined rail.  The  animal  moves  to  the  "sticker,'"  who  quickly  dispatches 
the  sheep  by  a  single  thrust  of  a  double-edged  knife.  Briefly,  the 
operations  consist  of  bleeding,  and  removal  of  pelt,  feet,  head,  wind- 
pipe, gullet,  and  all  internal  organs  except  the  kidneys.  After  passing 
through  many  hands,  the  carcass  reaches  the  cooler,  the  dressing  re- 
quiring about  half  an  hour. 

Method  of  dressing. — Prior  to  the  World  War,  a  number  of  styles 
of  dressing  sheep  and  lambs  were  used,  but  during  the  period  of  the 

228 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


229 


war,  as  a  conservation  measure,  the  U.  S.  Food  Administration  in- 
structed all  packers  that  sheep  and  lambs  must  be  dressed  by  the  plain 
or  round  method,  and  without  caul  or  pluck.  This  method  of  dressing, 
which  is  the  most  economical,  has  been  continued  since  the  war  to  the 
present  time,  and  there  is  no  indication  that  the  other  styles  of  dressing 
will  be  practiced  in  the  future.  Plain  or  round-dressed  sheep  and 
lambs  have  the  pelt,  head,  and  feet  removed,  and  the  fore  legs  are 
folded  at  the  knees.  They  are  opened  from  the  cod  or  bag  to  the 
breast,  and  are  split  through  the  breastbone.  A  spread  stick  is  placed 
in  the  breast  to  hold  it  open  and  properly  shape  the  carcass. 

Formerly,  in  dressing  the  lowest  grades  of  mutton  and  most  lambs, 
the  caul  (a  fatty  membrane  investing  the  internal  organs)  was  wrapped 
about  the  legs  and  laid  over  the  inside  of  the  carcass,  thus  improving 


Fig.  77. — Killing  sheep  at  Chicago. 


the  appearance,  preventing  drying  out,  and,  in  some  cases,  furnishing 
the  fat  necessary  for  proper  cooking  of  the  meat.  The  caul  contains 
considerable  fat,  and  as  it  was  usually  discarded  by  the  retailers  of 
mutton  and  lamb,  the  Food  Administration  rightly  designated  this 
style  of  dressing  as  wasteful  and  caused  it  to  be  discontinued.  Cauls 
are  now  sent  to  the  rendering  tank  for  the  extraction  of  fats  and  oils. 
The  pluck  consists  of  the  heart,  lungs,  liver,  windpipe,  a  portion  of  the 
diaphragm,  or  "skirt,"  and  more  or  less  adhering  fat.  Formerly,  most 
lambs  were  sold  "pluck  in,"  and  sheep  were  usually  sold  "pluck  out." 
The  pluck  is  now  used  principally  in  the  manufacture  of  different  kinds 
of  sausage. 

The  ofifal. — In  the  plain  or  round-dressed  style  of  dressing,  the 
sheep  loses  the  following  parts  in  the  order  named:  blood,  pelt,  feet, 


230  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

head,  and  viscera.  The  pelt  is  the  skin  with  the  wool  on,  and  it  is  a 
valuable  by-product. 

The  dressing  percentage. — -From  what  has  been  said  of  slaughter- 
ing and  dressing,  it  is  apparent  that  in  order  to  dress  a  high  percentage 
of  carcass,  sheep  must  be  (1)  heavily  fleshed,  fatness  being  especially 
important,  though  the  amount  of  lean  meat  or  muscle  is  also  an  im- 
portant factor;  (2)  neat  in  form,  or  free  from  paunchiness;  and  (3) 
light  in  pelt.  The  dressing  percentage  of  sheep  is  not  so  important 
as  that  of  cattle,  because  the  offal  has  a  higher  value  than  the  offal 
from  cattle,  on  account  of  the  high  value  of  the  pelt.  If  a  sheep  is 
fat  in  condition,  and  neat  and  trim  in  form,  it  will  tend  to  dress  high, 
but  the  fleece  should  be  as  heavy  as  is  consistent  with  the  production 
of  mutton  of  high  quality.  As  a  general  rule,  the  choicest  sheep  and 
lambs,  from  a  carcass  standpoint,  do  not  wear  heavy  fleeces,  although 
a  heavy  fleece  in  itself  is  valuable,  as  will  be  shown  later,  and  between 
two  sheep  otherwise  equal,  the  one  with  the  heavier  fleece  will  bring 
the  higher  price  on  the  market,  even  though  its  heavier  pelt  lessens  its 
dressing  percentage  to  some  extent.  Sheep  and  lambs  range  in  dressing 
percentage  from  40  to  65  per  cent,  but  ordinarily  dress  from  45  to  55 
per  cent.  Mutton  carcasses  usually  weigh  from  45  to  85  pounds,  while 
most  lamb  carcasses  weigh  from  35  to  50  pounds. 

Qualifications  of  a  good  carcass. — The  value  of  the  carcass  depends 
chiefly  upon  (1)  form,  (2)  covering,  (3)  quality,  (4)  weight,  and  (5) 
maturity.     Each  of  these  factors  is  briefly  discussed. ' 

1.  .Form. — The  essential  points  of  desired  shape  are  good  width 
in  proportion  to  length,  compactness,  and  smooth,  even  outlines. 
This  implies  a  thick  loin;  broad  back;  well-fleshed  ribs;  a  full,  thick 
middle  from  shoulder  to  leg;  plump,  thick  legs  filled  down  well;  and 
smoothly  covered  shoulders.  The  most  common  faults  of  form  are 
long,  slender  legs,  narrow  backs,  lack  of  development  over  ribs  and 
loin,  and  too  much  paunch,  or  belly.  Long  necks  in  ewes,  and  heavy 
"bucky"  necks,  shoulders,  and  briskets  in  wethers  are  objectionable. 

2.  Covering.^ — It  is  essential  that  the  carcass  be  smoothly  and 
evenly  covered  with  fat,  because  of  its  influence  on  the  appearance  of 
the  dressed  sheep,  the  quality  of  meat,  and  the  shrinkage  both  in  storage 
and  in  cooking.  Only  in  the  most  highly  finished  sheep  are  the  legs 
and  shanks  completely  covered.  The  kidney  fat  should  be  well  de- 
veloped, but  not  excessive.  A  light  kidney  usually  indicates  lack  of 
finish,  while  a  very  heavy  one  is  evidence  of  overdone  condition  or 
uneven  distribution  of  fat.  The  purse,  udder,  rump,  flanks,  and 
brisket  are  other  points  at  which  the  amount  of  fat  is  plainly  apparent, 


^For  these  discussions  the  writer  is  indebted  to  Illinois  Bulletin  147,  Market 
Classes  and  Grades  of  Meat,  by  Louis  D.  Hall. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


231 


but  it  should  not  be  excessive  on  any  of  these  parts.  The  lowest 
grades  have  practically  no  outside  fat,  the  amount  of  covering  varying 
more  or  less  directly  with  the  grades  of  mutton  from  common  to  choice. 
The  external  and  kidney  fat  should  be  firm,  brittle,  and  white.  As 
with  beef,  the  English  consumer  desires  fatter  mutton  than  would  suit 
the  American  trade. 

3.  Quality. — The  term  "quality"  is  here  used  somewhat  broadly, 
to  include  not  only  refinement  of  bone  and  fineness  of  texture  of  flesh, 
but  also  color  of  lean  and  fat.     The  flesh  should  be  firm  and  fine 


Fig.  78. — Lamb  carcasses.  Beginning  at  the  left,  the  grades  represented  are 
choice,  good,  medium,  and  common. 

grained,  without  the  stringy,  coarse  texture  of  aged  or  inferior  mutton. 
The  color  of  flesh  varies  from  light  pink  in  lambs  to  dull  red  in  mature 
mutton,  and  is  less  variable  than  in  beef.  The  fat  should  be  clear  and 
white.  General  quality  is  more  important  in  mutton  and  lamb  than 
in  other  branches  of  the  meat  trade,  on  account  of  the  custom  of  using 
the  carcasses  for  display  purposes  in  retail  markets. 

4.  Weight. — ^This  is  of  more  importance  in  grading  mutton  than 
in  grading  beef,  as  it  is  often  a  strong  indication  as  to  whether  a  carcass 
is  a  lamb,  yearling,  or  mature  sheep.     The  extreme  ranges  in  weights 


232  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

of  carcasses  are,  lambs,  15  to  50  pounds;  yearlings,  40  to  60  pounds; 
wethers,  40  to  120  pounds;  bucks,  45  to  200  pounds;  ewes,  50  to  200 
pounds.  The  most  desired  weights  for  a  lamb  carcass  are  40  to  45 
pounds;  for  mutton  carcasses,  50  to  65-pound  weights  are  most  desired. 
As  with  beef,  heavy  carcasses  are  demanded  by  hotels,  restaurants,  and 
dining  cars. 

5.  Maturity. — As  has  been  mentioned,  the  demand  for  Iamb  far 
exceeds  the  demand  for  mutton,  and  the  price  of  lamb  is  considerably 
higher.  The  packers'  interpretation  of  the  word  "lamb"  is  broader 
than  the  ordinary  understanding  of  the  term,  for  both  lambs  and  year- 
lings yield  a  "lamb"  carcass.  Mutton  carcasses  are  those  of  wethers 
two  years  old  or  over,  ewes,  bucks,  and  stags.  The  maturity  of  the 
carcass  may  be  easily  determined  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  from 
the  bones;  in  lambs  the  brisket  is  soft  and  red,  and  the  ribs  and  shank 


Fig.  79. — Break-joints  and  round-joint.  In  dressing  mature  sheep,  the  feet 
are  taken  off  at  the  ankle,  leaving  a  round-joint  on  the  end  of  the  shank  bone.  Im- 
mediately above  the  ankle  in  immature  stock  is  a  temporary  joint,  called  the  break- 
joint,  at  which  the  feet  are  removed.  Thus  the  head  of  the  shank  bone  as  well  as 
the  foot  is  removed,  leaving  the  saw-toothed  break-joint  on  the  end  of  the  shank 
bone.  As  the  animal  matures,  the  break-joint  ossifies  or  knits.  Pincers  are  some- 
times used  to  crush  off  those  which  are  partly  ossified.  This  leaves  an  imperfect 
break-joint.  The  shank  bones  of  mature  sheep  will  not  break.  At  the  left  above 
is  a  true  break-joint,  at  the  right  a  round-joint,  and  in  the  center  a  crushed  break- 
joint  from  a  nearly  mature  sheep. 

bones  are  colored  by  blood  vessels;  in  mature  sheep  the  bones  are  white 
and  hard.  However,  the  hreak-joint  furnishes  the  best  means  of  dis- 
tinguishing lambs  and  yearlings  from  mature  sheep.  The  break-joint 
or  lamb-joint  is  a  temporary  cartilage  which  forms  in  the  head  of  the 
shank  (shin  bone)  immediately  above  the  ankle.  In  dressing  lambs, 
yearling  wethers,  and  some  yearling  ewes,  the  foot  can  be  broken  off 
at  this  cartilage,  giving  the  end  of  the  shank  a  saw-tooth  shape.  In 
lambs  the  broken  surface  is  smooth  and  moist,  and  in  yearlings  it  is 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  233 

more  porous  and  dry.  The  shanks  of  mature  sheep  will  not  "break," 
because  the  cartilage  is  knit  or  ossified,  and  the  foot  is  taken  off  at  the 
ankle  instead,  making  a  "round-joint."  Shanks  of  female  or  ewe  sheep 
outside  the  lamb  class  are,  as  a  rule,  too  mature  to  break.  Conse- 
quently, 80  to  90  per  cent  of  "yearling  lamb"  carcasses  are  wethers, 
the  remainder  being  ewes  and  a  small  proportion  of  bucks  and  stags. 
Yearlings  substitute  for  genuine  lamb,  and  we  see  that  they  may  easily 
do  this  because  they  possess  the  break-joint.     (See  Fig.  79.) 

Goat  carcasses. — Dressed  goats  are  occasionally  sold  in  connec- 
tion with  mutton  and  lambs,  and  are  frequently  substituted  for  them, 
especially  in  the  retail  markets.  They  are  similar  to  the  lowest  grades 
of  western  sheep  in  form,  quality,  and  finish.  Long  shanks,  coarse, 
dark  flesh,  long  necks,  and  thin  caul,  however,  render  them  quite  easily 
distinguished  from  sheep  carcasses. 

Carcass  classes  and  grades. — Carcasses  of  sheep  and  lambs  are 
classified  and  graded  as  follows: 

Class  Grade 

LAMB  fLambs Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common 

\Yearlings Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common 

fWethers Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common 

MUTTON -jEwes Choice,  good,  medium,  common,  canners 

[Bucks Good,  medium,  common 

The  following  wholesale  prices  ^  indicate  the  comparative  values 
of  the  above  classes: 

Class  and  grade  Weight  Price  per  pound 

Special  Selected  Lambs 35  to  45  lbs .- 25  cents 

Good  Lambs 35  to  45  lbs 23  cents 

Medium  Lambs 35  to  45  lbs 22  cents 

Common  Lambs 25  lbs 18  centj 

Yearling  Lambs 40  to  45  lbs 16  cents 

Wether  Sheep 45  to  55  lbs 14  centj 

Ewe  Sheep 45  to  60  lbs 12  cents 

Common  Sheep 10  cents 

Diflferences  due  to  age  and  sex. — Carcasses  of  lambs  and  yearlings 
differ  from  other  carcasses  in  that  they  show  the  break-joint  on  th{ 
fore  leg.  Yearling  carcasses  differ  from  lamb  carcasses  in  showing  more 
maturity  and  usually  more  weight.  Lamb  carcasses  show  lighter- 
colored  and  finer-grained  flesh,  redder  and  softer  bones,  and  a  smoothei 
and  moister  break-joint  than  yearlings.  Carcasses  of  wethers,  ewes 
and  bucks  are  similar  in  showing  the  round-joint  on  the  fore  leg,  bul 
wether  carcasses  may  be  distinguished  by  the  cod  fat,  ewes  by  theii 
udders,  and  bucks  by  their  coarse,  heavy  necks  and  shoulders.  Th( 
wether  carcass  is  more  compact  and  thicker  fleshed  than  the  ewe  car 
cass.     Ewes  are  more  angular  and  have  longer  necks,  smaller  bone,  and 


^Wholesale  price  list  of  a  leading  Chicago  packer,  March,  1923. 


234 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


less  thickness  of  flesh.  The  buck  carcass  is  coarse  and  dark  colored  in 
its  flesh,  and  has  a  thick,  oily  "fell"  (the  white  membrane  covering  the 
carcass) .  Many  stags  and  some  bucks  closely  resemble  wethers  and  are 
commonly  sold  as  such. 

The  wholesale  cuts. — -The  following  diagram  represents  a  side 
view  of  a  carcass  of  lamb  or  mutton,  the  dotted  lines  indicating  the 
division  into  wholesale  cuts. 


Fig.  80. — Wholesale  cuts  of  mutton.  1,  Chuck;  2,  short  rack;  3,  breast;  4, 
loin;  5,  leg;  1  and  3,  stew;  1,  2,  and  3,  rack;  4  and  5,  saddle.  The  chuck  may  be  divided 
into  neck,  shoulder,  and  shanks. 

The  leg  and  loin  together  are  called  the  saddle,  and  the  combined 
short  rack,  chuck,  and  breast  are  called  the  rack.  The  saddle  and 
rack  are  almost  equal  in  weight.  One  rib  is  left  on  the  loin.  The 
short  rack  includes  from  9  to  11  pairs  of  ribs,  depending  on  how  the 
carcass  is  divided  between  short  rack  and  chuck.  The  chuck  and 
breast  are  usually  sold  together  as  one  cut,  called  the  "stew."  In 
average  45-pound  carcasses  of  lamb  and  mutton,  round  dressed,  and 
pluck  out,  the  weights  of  the  various  wholesale  cuts,  their  wholesale 
prices  per  pound,  and  total  values  are  as  given  in  the  following  table: 


Weights,  prices, 

and  values  of  wholesale  cuts  of  mutton  and  lamb 

Wholesale  cuts 

Weights 

in 
pounds 

Weights 

in 
per  cent 

Price  per  pound 

Total  value  of  cut 

Lamb 

Mutton 

Lamb 

Mutton 

Leg 

13.7 
9.6 
6.4 

15.3 

30.5 
21.3 
14.2 
34.0 

27 

29 

30 

8 

17 

19 

20 

6 

$3.70 
2.78 
1.92 
1.22 

$2.33 

1.82 

Short  rack  (10  ribs) 

Stew 

1.38 
.92 

Saddle   

23.3 
21.7 

51.8 
48.2 

27.6 
14 

17.8 
10.6 

6.48 
3.14 

4.15 

Rack 

2.30 

Totals 

45.0 

100.0 

21.4 

14.3 

9.62 

6.45 

High-priced  and  low-priced  cuts. — The  average  price  for  the  entire 
lamb  carcass  is  21.4  cents  per  pound,  while  the  mutton  carcass  averages 
14.3  cents  per  pound.  As  in  the  beef  carcass,  the  back,  loin,  and  hind- 
quarter  yield  high-priced  cuts,  while  the  forequarters  and  belly,  con- 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  235 

stituting  the  chuck  and  breast  cuts  are  low  in  price  because  they  lack 
thickness,  the  quantity  of  flesh  elements  being  relatively  small.  The 
leg  and  loin  of  the  lamb  include  52  per  cent  of  the  carcass  weight  and 
67  per  cent  of  the  total  value;  and  the  leg,  loin,  and  short  rack  include 
66  per  cent  of  the  weight  and  87  per  cent  of  the  value. 

Packing  House  By-Products  from  Sheep 

A  greater  proportion  of  the  sheep's  value  to  the  packer  lies  in  its 
by-products  than  is  true  of  the  steer  or  the  hog.  Edward  N.  Went- 
worth  of  Armour's  Livestock  Bureau  states^  that  from  November  1, 
1918,  to  November  1,  1919,  Armour  and  Company  killed  2,326,277 
sheep  and  lambs  at  its  various  plants  in  the  United  States,  and  that 
the  return  from  these  averaged  $12.02  per  head.  Of  this  amount,  $8.34 
was  received  for  the  carcass,  and  the  remaining  $3.68  represented  the 
value  of  the  by-products.  Of  the  latter  amount,  $2.95  was  derived 
from  the  pelt,  and  the  remaining  73  cents  was  derived  from  all  other 
by-products.  Expressed  in  percentages,  the  carcass  represented  69.4 
per  cent  of  the  total  value,  the  pelt  24.5  per  cent,  and  all  other  by- 
products 6.1  per  cent.  It  should  be  noted  that  nearly  one-fourth  of 
the  total  value  was  represented  by  the  pelt. 

The  value  of  the  pelt. — Information  has  been  given  out  from  var- 
ious sources  that  buyers  of  sheep  for  the  packers  prefer  animals  wearing 
light  pelts.  It  has  been  said  that  the  slaughtering  departments  of 
packing  houses  without  exception  dispose  of  sheep  pelts  at  a  fixed  price 
per  pelt,  consigning  them  to  the  wool-pullery  department  of  their  own 
plant,  or  to  some  independent  pullery.  Buyers  have  been  reported  to 
prefer  light- wooled  lots  in  order  to  obtain  high  dressing  percentages; 
it  has  been  said  that  buyers  have  no  particular  interest  in  the  welfare 
of  their  own  pulleries,  or  in  other  firms  that  buy  the  pelts  for  pulling. 
Farmers  have  been  advised  that  the  highest  market  price  is  obtained 
for  sheep  and  lambs  that  are  light  in  pelt  and  which  consequently  dress 
high. 

Can  it  be  possible  that  the  packer,  with  all  his  genius  for  the 
utilization  of  by-products,  is  overlooking  such  an  important  item  as 
wool?  If  the  shank  bones  of  cattle  may  be  profitably  converted  into 
buttons  and  other  articles,  is  it  not  inconsistent  and  unbusinesslike 
to  discount  well-wooled  lots  of  sheep?  With  wool  worth  25  to  50  cents 
per  pound,  is  it  not  strange  that  the  buyer  should  refuse  to  bid  higher 
on  a  well-wooled  band  of  sheep  than  upon  a  lot  with  light  fleeces,  other 
things  being  equal,  especially  as  the  fleece  is  obtained  at  the  live- 
weight  price  of  the  animal,  namely  10  to  20  cents  per  pound?     In  hand- 


1  Monthly  Letter  to  Animal  Husbandmen,  The  Source  and  Use  of  Packing 
House  By-Products,  Armour  and  Company,  Chicago,  Aug.  1,  1920. 


236  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

ling  thousands  of  sheep,  the  wool  reaches  a  considerable  valuation.  If 
light  pelts  are  wanted,  why  do  shorn  sheep  sell  at  a  discount? 

Such  questions  as  these  led  the  writer  to  make  an  investigation 
which  included  interviews  with  the  principal  buyers  at  Chicago,  and 
an  inspection  of  a  modern  wool-pulling  establishment  owned  by  one 
of  the  packing  firms.  It  was  found  that  a  few  buyers  do  give  prefer- 
ence to  light-pelted  lots,  but  that  class  of  buyers  is  decidedly  in  the 
minority.  Swift,  Armour,  Wilson,  and  New  York  butchers  have  for 
some  time  realized  the  added  value  of  a  heavy  fleece,  and  this  has 
enabled  them,  in  many  instances,  to  outbid  competing  firms  who  con- 
sider only  the  dressing  percentage  as  an  index  of  the  value  of  sheep  for 
slaughter.  The  fact  that  New  York  butchers  have  been  able  to  dispose 
of  pelts  profitably  very  largely  explains  their  survival  in  the  face  of 
keen  competition  with  packers. 

The  slaughtering  departments  of  those  packing  houses  equipped 
with  wool  puUeries  are  credited  each  day  with  the  value  of  the  pelts 
sent  from  the  killing  floor.  The  value  per  pelt  varies,  depending  upon 
(1)  size  of  pelt,  (2)  weight  of  fleece,  (3)  quality  of  fleece,  (4)  cleanness 
of  fleece,  (5)  amount  of  grease,  (6)  color  of  wool,  and  (7)  thickness  of 
skin.  On  this  basis  the  value  per  pelt  at  the  present  time  (March, 
1923)  ranges  as  low  as  50  cents  for  lambs,  and  as  high  as  $5  and  over 
for  sheep  pelts  in  full  fleece,  depending  mostly  upon  age,  breeding,  and 
season  of  the  year.  The  average  price  of  Chicago  pelts  is  now  about 
$3.50  per  pelt.  The  value  of  the  pelt  plays  an  important  part  in  de- 
termining the  value  of  a  sheep  to  the  packer. 

Packing  houses  and  other  wholesale  butchers  not  equipped  with 
wool  pulleries  have  two  methods  of  disposing  of  the  pelts;  they  may 
either  contract  them  in  advance  at  a  fixed  price  per  pelt,  or  they  may 
allow  them  to  accumulate  and  then  solicit  bids.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  bidders  make  an  examination  and  the  pelts  sell  on  their  merits. 
In  the  former  case,  the  packer  or  butcher  has  no  incentive  to  pay  a 
premium  for  well-wooled  sheep,  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  to  his  advan- 
tage to  select  those  with  light  pelts.  One  prominent  sheep  buyer  on 
the  Chicago  market  designated  the  contract  plan  as  "slipshod,"  and 
he  stated  that  "eventually  it  must  cease  as  competition  becomes  more 
keen."  He  also  said,  "I  instruct  my  men  to  consider  wool  as  well  as 
meat,  and  when  they  make  bids,  you  may  be  sure  they  have  estimated 
the  value  of  the  pelt  as  well  as  the  carcass." 

Pelts  are  most  valuable  in  the  spring  just  before  shearing  time. 
Shorn  sheep  sell  at  a  discount  because  the  wool  cannot  be  pulled  at  a 
profit  until  it  has  a  growth  of  three-quarters  of  an  inch  or  more.  When 
the  staple  measures  less  than  this,  the  pelts  are  tanned  with  the  wool 
on,  and  the  price  received  is  small  compared  with  pelts  which  can  be 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  237 

pulled.  The  time  of  shearing  marks  the  close  of  winter  and  the  opening 
of  pasturage,  hence  shorn  sheep  are  often  gaunt,  and  this  is  another 
reason  for  the  lower  price. 

Pulled  wool  has  the  same  uses  as  ordinary  clipped  wool.  The 
weight  of  wool  from  an  average  pelt  is  4  to  5  pounds.  This  seems  a 
low  figure,  but  the  pelts  are  scrubbed  before  pulling,  which  takes  out 
nearly  all  the  dirt  and  grease,  and  causes  a  decided  loss  in  weight. 

After  the  wool  is  pulled,  the  skins  are  prepared  for  the  tannery. 
Untanned  sheep  and  lamb  skins  have  a  wide  range  of  value,  with  an 
average  at  the  present  time  of  $5.75  per  dozen  for  lamb  skins  and  $8.00 
for  sheep  skins.  The  value  depends  upon  the  size,  quality,  and  thick- 
ness. The  Merino  yields  a  thin,  porous  skin  which  makes  a  leather 
that  scuffs  easily  and  wears  out  very  quickly.  These  bring  the  lowest 
price.  The  best-wearing  and  highest-priced  sheep  leather  is  made  from 
skins  of  the  long-wooled  breeds.  Sheep  leather  is  used  for  making 
cheap  shoes,  shoe  linings,  gloves,  bags,  book  bindings,  cheap  saddles,  suit 
cases,  sweat  bands  for  hats,  and  many  other  articles.  Chamois  skins 
are  now  made  entirely  of  sheep  skins.  Goat  skins  are  much  in  demand 
for  furniture  leather  and  are  more  valuable  than  sheep  skins.  They 
average  a  little  larger  in  size  than  sheep  skins  and  wear  much  better. 

Other  by-products  of  sheep. — The  by-products  from  the  slaughter 
of  sheep  may  be  classed  as  edible  and  inedible.  The  edible  by-products 
include  the  tongue,  which  is  used  for  cooking  or  sausage;  the  pluck, 
which  is  usually  ground  up  and  used  in  different  kinds  of  sausage;  and 
the  paunch,  about  one-half  of  the  paunches  being  used  for  tripe,  made 
by  boiling  and  pickling  the  paunches.  The  bones,  stomach,  and  any 
trimmings  are  tanked,  thus  extracting  fats  and  oils,  and  the  residue  is 
treated  to  make  glue.  The  final  residue  is  made  into  tankage  and 
fertilizer.  The  blood,  dried  and  ground,  makes  blood  meal  and 
fertilizer.  Hard  bones  yield  bone  charcoal  for  bleaching  purposes, 
black  pigment  for  paint,  shoeblacking,  etc.,  bone  dust  for  fertilizer, 
vitrified  bone  for  making  glass,  cement  for  billiard  balls,  and  knife 
handles,  combs,  buttons,  and  other  articles.  The  intestines,  windpipe, 
and  bladder  are  cleaned  and  made  into  sausage  casings.  Musical 
strings,  clock  cord,  and  surgical  ligature  for  sewing  up  wounds,  as  well 
as  casings  for  little  sausages,  are  made  exclusively  from  the  intestines 
of  sheep.  A  class  of  oleo  oil  is  made  from  the  better  grade  of  mutton 
tallow,  and  enters  into  the  composition  of  oleomargarine.  Inedible 
greases  are  used  in  soaps.  Some  valuable  chemicals  used  in  medicine 
are  obtained  as  by-products  from  sheep.  Among  these  are  thyroidin, 
used  as  a  cure  for  cretinism,  and  suprarenalin,  a  powerful  astringent 
used  in  cases  of  severe  bleeding.  More  than  130,000  sheep  are  required 
to  make  a  pound  of  suprarenalin. 


238  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Conclusions 

The  following  conclusions  may  be  drawn  from  a  study  of  sheep 
and  lamb  slaughter,  carcasses,  and  by-products: 

1.  In  order  to  dress  a  high  percentage  of  carcass,  sheep  and 
lambs  must  be  heavily  fleshed,  free  from  paunchiness,  and  light  in  pelt. 

2.  The  pelt,  especially  the  wool,  is  a  valuable  by-product. 

3.  The  total  by-products  of  sheep  are  relatively  more  valuable 
than  those  of  cattle  or  hogs. 

4.  The  dressing  percentage  of  sheep,  though  an  important  factor 
in  determining  the  price  of  the  live  animal,  is  of  less  importance  than 
the  dressing  percentage  of  cattle. 

5.  The  most  profitable  market  lamb  is  fat,  free  from  paunchiness, 
and  carries  a  fairly  heavy  fleece  of  good,  clean  wool. 

6.  The  same  blocky  form  desired  in  the  live  animal  is  also  desired 
in  the  carcass. 

7.  Mutton  and  lamb  are  sold  as  fresh  meat  products  almost 
exclusively. 

8.  Lamb  is  usually  superior  to  mutton  in  color,  grain,  tenderness, 
and  flavor. 

9.  The  most  desired  lamb  carcasses  fall  within  a  narrow  range  of 
weight,  40  to  45  pounds. 

10.  The  packer  classes  all  carcasses  which  show  the  break-joint 
as  "lamb"  carcasses.  Such  carcasses  are  yielded  by  genuine  lambs,  by 
most  yearling  wethers,  and  by  some  yearling  ewes. 

11.  Genuine  lamb  carcasses  bring  a  higher  price  than  yearling 
lamb  carcasses,  and  the  latter  outsell  mutton  carcasses. 

12.  Wethers  of  all  ages  usually  yield  better  carcasses  than  ewes 
of  the  same  age  because  of  greater  thickness  of  cuts  and  greater  com- 
pactness. Wethers  are  superior  to  bucks  in  quality,  finish,  and  per- 
centage of  high-priced  cuts.  More  of  the  buck's  weight  is  in  the  neck, 
shoulders,  and  brisket. 

13.  The  back,  loin,  and  hindquarter  yield  the  high-priced  cuts  of 
mutton  and  lamb — the  short  rack,  loin,  and  leg. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
AMERICAN  SHEEP  MARKETS 

Sheep  are  marketed  by  the  same  methods  and  are  shipped  and 
sold  at  the  central  markets  in  the  same  manner  as  cattle,  as  described 
in  Chapter  V.  A  larger  proportion  of  sheep  pass  through  the  central 
markets  and  relatively  smaller  numbers  are  slaughtered  at  local  points 
and  on  farms  and  ranges  than  is  true  of  cattle  or  hogs. 

The  14  largest  sheep  markets  and  their  receipts  for  three  years 
are  as  follows:  ^ 

Markets  1922  1921  1920 

1.  Chicago        3,873,947  4,734,408  4,005,237 

2.  Omaha      2,532,787  2,752,962  2,890,748 

3.  Denver 1,866,784  1,467,911  2,078,688 

4.  Kansas  City 1,574,217  1,780,298  1,687,017 

5.  Buffalo 1,190,564  1,380,052  1,051,869 

6.  Pittsburgh 1,204,217  1,196,975  922,157 

7.  St.  Joseph 729,784  930,911  842,639 

8.  Ogden 704,419  575,462  602,718 

9.  St.  Louis 627,880  635,827  604,769 

10.  St.  Paul    498,891  632,865  728,957 

11.  Salt  Lake  City 459,453  368,261  481,300 

12.  Cleveland 360,432  369,755  419,744 

13.  Fort  Worth 324,870  357,094  393,929 

14.  Baltimore 306,336  466,204  366,981 

Totals 16,254,581  17,648,985  17,076,753 

The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricultural  Economics  reports  that 
22,364,475  sheep  and  lambs  were  received  in  1922  at  68  stock  yards  in 
34  states.  The  14  markets  listed  above  received  73  per  cent  of  this 
total. 

The  Chicago  sheep  market  is  easily  the  largest  in  the  world.  The 
total  value  of  sheep  and  lambs  received  there  during  1922  was 
$37,346,422.  Their  average  value  per  head  was  $9.65.  Their  average 
live  weight  was  78  pounds.     Their  average  price  per  cwt.  was  $12.35. 

At  Chicago  during  1922,  Swift  and  Company  slaughtered  867,769 
sheep.  Armour  and  Company  714,152,  Morris  and  Company  472,470, 
and  Wilson  and  Company  435,962.  These  four  companies  slaughtered 
96  per  cent  of  all  sheep  killed  by  Chicago  packers  in  1922. 

The  commission  charge  for  selling  straight  carloads  of  sheep  or 
goats  at  Chicago  is  20  cents  per  head,  with  a  maximum  of  $14  on  single- 
deck  cars  and  a  maximum  of  $20  on  double-deck  cars.  On  less  than 
40  head  of  sheep  or  goats  shipped  in  one  car,  the  commission  is  30 

1  Compiled  from  Drovers  Journal  Year  Book  of  Figures  for  1922. 
239 


240  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

cents  per  head.  The  charge  for  yardage  is  7  cents  per  head.  Hay 
costs  from  $1.50  to  $2.00  per  cwt.,  corn  $1.25  per  bushel,  and  oats 
$1.00  per  bushel. 

Monthly  weights  of  Chicago  sheep. — The  writer  tabulated  the 
average  monthly  weights  of  sheep  and  lambs  at  Chicago  for  ten  years, 
1913  to  1922  inclusive,  and  then  determined  the  monthly  averages  for 
the  entire  ten-year  period.  The  average  weight  for  March  at  84.1 
pounds  was  highest,  and  the  average  for  June  at  73.3  pounds  was 
lowest.  The  October  average  at  73.6  pounds  was  nearly  as  low  as 
June.  Spring  lambs  evidently  account  for  the  June  low  average,  and 
the  fall  run  of  western  lambs  accounts  for  the  low  average  in  October. 
The  between  weights  are  higher.  The  general  average  for  the  ten 
years  was  77.9  pounds. 

March  weights  were  highest  in  7  of  the  10  years,  April  in  2,  and 
January  in  1.  Lowest  monthly  weights  occured  in  October  4  times, 
June  3  times,  and  in  July,  September,  and  November  each  1  time. 
Following  are  the  ten-year  averages  i^ 

Monthly  average  weights  of  sheep  and  lambs  at  Chicago  for  ten  years 

Weight  Weight 

Month  Pounds  Month  Pounds 

January 81.5  July 73.6 

February 83.0  August 76.9 

March 84.1  September 74.1 

Aoril 83.9  October 73.6 

May 80.7  November 76.6 

June (73.3)  December 80.1 

Shrinkage  in  shipping. — Henry  and  Morrison  report  the  following 
figures  relative  to  shrinkage  of  sheep  and  lambs  in  transit:  ^ 

Range  lambs  shipped  1,440  miles  shrank  from  4.6  to  8.7  per  cent 
and  averaged  7.6  per  cent.  Native  lambs  shipped  135  to  149  miles 
shrank  1.3  to  6.8  per  cent.  Lambs  under  100  pounds  in  transit  4  days 
shrink  7  to  8  pounds. 

Yearling  wethers  weighing  about  120  pounds  and  in  transit  4  days 
shrink  about  10  pounds. 

Aged  wethers  and  ewes  in  transit  4  days  shrink  about  12  pounds. 
Two-year-old  wethers  shipped  1,440  miles  shrank  5.1  to  8.6  per  cent 
and  averaged  6.8  per  cent.  These  figures  are  based  on  "filled"  weight 
at  the  market. 

The  fill. — Upon  their  arrival  in  the  pens  at  the  market,  sheep  are 
fed  hay  and  grain  and  are  watered.  This  constitutes  the  "fill,"  and 
it  is  important  because  it  has  a  quieting  effect,  improves  the  appear- 
ance, and  increases  the  weight  of  the  animals. 


1  Compiled  from  Drovers  Journal  Year  Books  of  Figures. 
2Feeds  and  Feeding,  1915,  p.  519. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  241 

Sorting  and  selling. — Mixed  loads  of  sheep  and  lambs  containing 
both  killers  and  feeders  may  be  sorted  by  the  commission  man  prior 
to  selling  them,  or  he  may  sell  them  to  a  packer  buyer  or  order  buyer 
with  the  privilege  of  sorting  or  cutting  out  an  agreed  percentage  or 
number  of  them.  The  remaining  animals  may  then  be  sold  to  a  feeder 
buyer.  Mixed  loads  composed  mostly  of  feeders  may  be  sold  to  a 
trader  who  buys  them  all.  He  then  sorts  them  and  sells  the  fat  end 
as  killers  and  the  thin  end  as  feeders.  Commission  men  also  sell  some 
loads  straight  without  sorting  to  packers,  order  buyers,  and  feeder 
buyers,  but  a  large  proportion  of  receipts  require  preliminary  sorting 
or  sale  to  traders  in  order  to  realize  the  best  price  for  them. 

Commission  men  and  buyers  must  handle  all  sheep,  except  shorn 
sheep,  in  order  to  determine  their  condition,  smoothness,  density  of 
wool,  and  market  value.  It  is  impossible  to  buy  and  sell  sheep  on  the 
basis  of  their  general  appearance  as  cattle  and  hogs  are  bought  and 
sold  at  the  markets.  Different  market  men  use  different  methods  of 
handling.  One  man  may  feel  of  the  loin,  another  the  back  and  ribs, 
and  another  the  dock.  Sometimes  both  back  and  dock  are  handled. 
The  most  common  practice  is  to  grasp  the  back  and  ribs  with  thumb 
and  fingers  spread  out  to  full  width.  In  sorting,  the  thin  sheep  or  the 
fat  sheep  are  marked  on  the  backs  with  chalk.  Then  the  load  is  driven 
in  single  file  through  a  narrow  chute  at  the  end  of  which  is  a  small 
gate  controlling  the  entrance  to  two  pens.  The  sheep  marked  with 
chalk  are  admitted  to  one  pen  and  those  unmarked  pass  into  the  other. 

Seasonal  variations  in  receipts  and  sale  of  sheep  at  Chicago. — 
Fig.  81  shows  the  average  monthly  receipts  of  sheep  and  lambs  at 
Chicago  for  ten  years.  Largest  receipts  occur  in  the  fall  months, 
September,  October,  and  November,  when  heavy  shipments  arrive 
from  western  ranges.  The  total  number  received  during  these  three 
months  almost  equals  total  receipts  for  the  first  half  of  the  year.  A 
rapid  rise  begins  in  June  and  reaches  a  climax  in  October,  followed  by 
a  rapid  decline  until  February,  and  a  continued  but  slow  decline  from 
February  to  May  inclusive.  In  9  of  the  10  years,  lowest  monthly 
receipts  occurred  from  February  to  May  inclusive.  May  is  the  month 
of  smallest  average  receipts.  October  brings  the  largest  receipts. 
This  was  true  in  8  of  the  10  years,  with  September  highest  in  the  other 
two.  October  receipts  average  2.4  times  larger  than  May  receipts. 
Between  May  and  October  and  October  and  May,  monthly  receipts 
follow  an  even  curve,  upward  in  the  first  period  and  then  downward. 
Seasonal  variations  in  receipts  of  sheep  are  much  more  marked  than 
those  of  cattle,  and  are  somewhat  greater  than  those  of  hogs. 

As  shown  in  the  chart,  75  per  cent  of  the  sheep  annually  received 
at  Chicago  are  slaughtered  there.     The  number  shipped  monthly  to 


242 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


other  points  for  slaughter  is  quite  variable,  but  for  the  year  includes 
only  6  per  cent  of  total  receipts.  The  number  shipped  for  feeding 
varies  widely  in  different  seasons  and  averages  18.6  per  cent  for  the 
year.  ^  During  the  first  six  months  of  the  year  less  than  7  per  cent 
of  receipts  are  sold  as  feeders.  During  8  of  the  10  years  included  in 
this  study,  smallest  feeder  shipments  occurred  in  April  and  May.  In 
the  other  2  years  smallest  shipments  occurred  in  January  and  June 
respectively.  During  8  of  the  10  years  studied,  largest  feeder  ship- 
ments were  made  in  October,  and  during  the  other  2  years  largest  ship- 
ments were  made  in  September.  The  ten-year  averages  show  that 
during  the  last  six  months  of  the  year  a  little  over  26  per  cent  of  re- 


IChica<jo  5lau()kter      I l5liippeJ  |or  SUiKjLter     ^^SkippeJlor  feeJifi 


Fig.  81. — Average  monthly  receipts  and  shipments  of  sheep  and  lambs  at 
Chicago  in  thousands  for  ten  years,  1909-1913  and  1917-1921.  The  years  1914-1916 
were  omitted  because  of  embargoes  on  shipments  during  much  of  that  period.  The 
total  length  of  each  bar  represents  average  monthly  receipts.  The  divisions  of  the 
bar  represent  the  average  number  of  Chicago  sheep  and  lambs  sold  monthly  for  local 
slaughter,  shipment  to  other  points  for  slaughter,  and  shipment  to  the  country  for 
feeding  (or  breeding)  purposes. 

ceipts  are  sold  for  feeding  purposes.  In  September  about  34  per  cent 
and  in  October  about  38  per  cent  of  the  month's  receipts  are  sold  for 
feeding.  Over  65  per  cent  of  all  the  feeders  sold  during  the  year  are 
sold  in  September,  October,  and  November,  and  over  75  per  cent  are 
sold  in  these  three  months  and  August.  It  is  fortunate  that  there  is 
a  large  demand  for  feeders  during  fall  months  when  receipts  are  very 


1  Shipments  of  sheep  from  the  markets  for  breeding  purposes  are  not  counted 
separately,  but  are  included  as  feeders. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  243 

large.  This  greatly  aids  in  maintaining  prices  for  killing  sheep  and 
lambs  at  the  time  when  prices  are  usually  lowest.  Without  this  large 
feeder  outlet,  the  price  of  sheep  for  slaughter  would  be  much  lower  in 
the  fall. 

The  principal  feeder  sheep  markets  and  the  numbers  of  feeders 
shipped  during  1920,  1921,  and  1922  are  as  follows:  ^ 

Markets  1922  1921  1920 

1.  Denver 1,088,187  643,118  1,348,690 

2.  Omaha 757,254  669,585  1,123,637 

3.  Chicago 687,762  520,999  898,703 

4.  Kansas  City 385,282  324,150  474,409 

5.  Ogden 280,476  196,438  132,829 

6.  Salt  Lake  City 276,048  142,348  210,743 

7.  St.  Joseph 112,769  106,981  142,069 

8.  Fort  Worth 136,142  79,556  71,339 

9.  St.  Paul 66,419  78.423  113,258 

10.  Sioux  City 44,546  63',654  89,881 

11.  St.  Louis 50,427  32,569  59,664 

Totals 3,885,312  2,857,821  4,665,222 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  rank  of  these  markets  is  not  the  same  as 
their  rank  in  total  receipts.  Markets  receiving  the  largest  numbers 
of  western  sheep  rank  highest  as  feeder  sheep  markets.  These  11 
markets  handled  93  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  feeder  sheep  and 
lambs  handled  by  68  markets  in  1922. 

*  Compiled  from  Drovers  Journal  Year  Book  of  Figures  for  1922. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Sheep 

Three  general  classes  of  sheep  are  recognized  at  the  large  live- 
stock markets.  Each  of  these  general  classes  is  divided  into  two  or 
more  classes,  and  most  of  the  classes  are  in  turn  divided  into  grades. 
The  three  general  classes  and  their  requirements  are  briefly  as  follows: 

1.  Mutton  sheep — including  all  lambs,  yearlings,  wethers,  ewes, 
bucks,  and  stags  sold  for  slaughter. 

2.  Feeder  sheep — including  all  lambs,  yearlings,  wethers,  and 
ewes  sold  for  feeding  purposes. 

3.  Breeding  sheep — including  ewes  and  bucks  sold  for  breeding 
purposes. 

The  grades.  ^ — The  sheep  within  a  class  are  graded  according  to 
their  relative  value.  The  grades  are  (1)  prime,  or  fancy  selected,  (2) 
choice,  (3)  good,  (4)  medium,  and  (5)  common.  The  term  "fair" 
means  the  same  as  "medium,"  and  is  frequently  substituted  for  it. 
"Inferior,"  "poor,"  and  "culls"  are  terms  sometimes  substituted  for 
"common."  In  some  classes  there  is  no  grade  better  than  choice,  and 
in  other  classes  there  are  no  grades  better  than  good.  As  the  term 
"prime"  indicates  a  high  degree  of  condition  or  finish,  the  best  grade 
of  feeder  lambs  and  breeding  ewes  is  termed  "fancy  selected." 

Native  and  western  sheep. — Before  describing  the  market  classes 
and  grades,  some  of  the  general  descriptive  terms  used  in  the  sheep 
market  need  explanation.  As  applied  to  market  sheep,  these  general 
terms  have  little  direct  bearing  on  the  market  classification,  but  they 
serve  to  indicate,  in  a  more  or  less  general  manner,  where  the  sheep 
were  raised,  the  nature  of  their  breeding,  and  how  they  were  fed. 

"Native  sheep"  are  those  produced  in  the  small  farm  flocks  of  the 
Central  West,  East,  and  South.  "Western  sheep"  are  those  produced 
in  the  large  range  flocks  of  the  West.  Western  sheep  are  very  largely 
of  Merino  breeding,  whereas  natives  have  mostly  a  mutton  ancestry. 
Western  sheep  are  usually  white  faced  and  more  or  less  wrinkled, 
particularly  below  the  neck;  native  sheep  are  mostly  brown  faced  and 
are  usually  free  from  wrinkles.  Range  sheep  are  more  uniform  in 
appearance  than  natives  and  are  nearly  always  docked  and  castrated, 
while  many  native  sheep  and  lambs  come  to  market  undocked  and 
uncastrated.     In  the  West,  sheep  are  produced  on  pasture  and  hay 


For  definitions  of  market  class  and  grade,  see  page  119. 
244 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  245 

almost  exclusively.  Many  range-bred  sheep  are  sold  to  the  central 
states  for  fattening  on  grain  and  roughage.  At  the  markets  and  in 
market  reports,  western  sheep  are  frequently  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  the  state  in  which  they  were  produced,  as  "Colorados," 
"Montanas,"  "Mexicans,"  "Idahos,"  etc.  The  mutton  and  breeding 
classes  include  both  native  and  western  sheep,  but  the  feeder  class, 
as  a  rule,  includes  western  sheep  only.  Many  native  lambs  in  feeder 
condition  are  not  desirable  for  feeding  because  they  are  undocked  and 
uncastrated.  Furthermore,  native  sheep  and  lambs  that  reach  the 
market  in  low  condition  seldom  sell  as  feeders  because  they  are  usually 
infested  with  internal  parasites,  thus  making  it  difficult  or  impossible 
to  fatten  them. 

The  stomach  worm  of  sheep,  Haemonchus  contortus,  is  one  of  the 
most  serious  pests  affecting  live  stock.     Sheep  of  all  ages  are  subject 


Fig.  82. — Prime  native  lambs. 

to  it,  but  infested  lambs  show  much  more  serious  effects  than  do 
mature  animals.  The  lambs  become  infested  from  the  older  sheep 
through  the  medium  of  the  pasture.  The  symptoms  are  anemia,  loss 
of  flesh,  general  weakness,  dullness,  thirst,  loss  of  appetite,  and  diarrhea. 
No  treatment  has  been  found  that  will  rid  a  flock  of  this  pest,  although 
dosing  with  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate,  "Black  Leaf  40,"  (a  40  per 
cent  solution  of  nicotine  sulphate),  or  with  gasoline  is  fairly  satisfactory 
and  will  hold  stomach  worms  in  check  so  that  they  will  not  seriously 
injure  the  flock.  The  best  means  of  combating  the  parasite  is  by 
preventative  measures.  Rotation  of  pastures  is  imperative.  Perma- 
nent pastures  for  farm  flocks  are  almost  certain  to  cause  trouble.  Rape 
should  be  sown  as  early  in  the  season  as  possible.  It  is  easily  grown, 
has  a  high  value  as  feed  for  sheep  and  lambs,  and  helps  prevent  stomach 
worms,  especially  when  temporary  fences  are  used  and  the  flock  is 
changed  to  fresh  ground  frequently. 


246 


Types  and  Maricet  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


The  western  sheep  owner  with  great  areas  of  pasturage  is  able  to 
keep  his  flocks  on  fresh  ground,  while  on  farms  this  is  possible  but, 
unfortunately,  is  not  often  practiced.  Hence  western  sheep  have  a 
great  advantage  over  native  sheep  for  feeding  purposes. 

The  term  "fed"  when  prefixed  to  the  name  of  a  class  indicates 
that  the  sheep  were  fattened  on  grain  rather  than  on  grass  alone. 
Sheep  that  were  sheared  shortly  before  their  arrival  at  market  are 
termed  "shorn"  as  distinguished  from  "wooled"  sheep. 

Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Sheep 

Following  is  the  complete  outline  of  the  market  classes  and  grades 
of  sheep  and  lambs: 

Classes  Grades 

MUTTON  SHEEP: 

Light  and  handy  1 

weight,  85  lbs.  down 
Medium  weight,  85-95  lbs.  [  Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,   common 
Heavy  weight,  95  lbs.  up . 

Spring  lambs J 

Light  weight,  90  lbs.  down  ] 

^^?bs'".''^'^.^.^.\.^.^.".^^^ k^^^^  ^^°^««'  g°°d'  "^^d^^"*'  ^0"^"^°" 

Heavy  weight,  100  lbs.  up  J 

Wethers Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common 

Ewes Choice,  good,  medium,  common 

Bucks  and  stags Good,  medium,  common 


Lambs 


Yearlings. 


FEEDER  SHEEP: 
Lambs 


Yearlings . 
Wethers. 
Ewes.  .  .  . 


.Fancy  selected,    choice,   good,   medium, 

common 
.Choice,  good,  medium,  common 
.  Choice,  good,  medium,  common 
.  Choice,  good,  medium,  common 


BREEDING  SHEEP: 

T7i„,„„    /Yearlings  and  twos 
£.wes    ^Threes  and  over  .  . 

Bucks 

MISCELLANEOUS: 
Hot-house  lambs 
Throw  outs 
Canners 
Dead  sheep 
Goats 


Fancy  selected,   choice,   good,    medium, 
common 


As  shown  above,  each  of  the  general  classes  includes  two  or  more 
classes  or  divisions  according  to  age  or  sex,  and  some  of  these  classes 
are  in  turn  divided  according  to  weight  or  age.  All  of  the  more  impor- 
tant classes  are  divided  into  three  or  more  grades  according  to  the 
comparative  merits  and  faults  (values)  of  the  animals  in  the  class. 
The  division  into  grades  is  more  arbitrary  than  the  division  into  classes. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


247 


Mutton  Sheep 

Mutton  sheep  constitute  a  general  class  including  all  sheep  and 
lambs  which  are  sold  for  immediate  slaughter.  Most  of  them  are  sold 
to  local  packers,  but  some  of  the  better  grades  are  sold  to  order  buyers 
who  ship  them  for  slaughter  to  eastern  cities.  The  classes  of  mutton 
sheep  are  lambs,  yearlings,  wethers,  ewes,  and  bucks  and  stags. 

Lambs. — ^The  lamb  class,  including  wether,  ewe,  and  buck  lambs, 
is  the  most  numerous  and  most  important  class  of  mutton  or  killing 
sheep.  A  recent  survey  of  Chicago  receipts  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Agricultural  Economics  ^  shows  that  82  per  cent  of  all  receipts  consist 
of  lambs,  while  10  per  cent  are  ewes,  2  per  cent  are  yearlings,  and  6 


Fig.  83. — Prime  western  lambs. 


per  cent  are  wethers,  bucks,  and  stags.  Lambs  are  most  profitable  to 
the  producer  because  their  cost  of  production  is  less  and  because  their 
market  price  is  higher  than  that  of  any  other  class.  Consumers  prefer 
lambs  to  older  animals  because  of  the  better  flavor  and  greater  tender- 
ness of  the  meat. 

At  12  to  14  months  of  age,  lambs  become  yearlings,  ewes,  or  bucks. 
Western  lambs  mature  more  slowly  than  natives  because  of  their 
Merino  breeding  and  because  they  are  not  ordinarily  as  well  fed. 
The  slower  maturity  of  the  western  lamb  is  something  of  an  advantage, 
enabling  it  longer  to  enjoy  the  advantage  in  price  which  lambs  have 
over  older  animals.     Western  lambs  may  be  purchased  in  the  late  fall 


^As  reported  in  the  Breeder's  Gazette,  Nov.  9,  1922,  p.  611. 


248  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

for  feeding  during  winter  and  spring,  and  upon  their  return  to  mar- 
ket in  May  they  will  still  class  as  lambs,  while  native  lambs  of  the 
same  age  and  similarly  managed  would  class  as  sheep. 

In  the  late  spring  and  early  summer  the  market  receives  lambs 
born  the  year  previous,  and  also  young  lambs  born  within  the  year. 
The  latter  are  called  "spring  lambs"  to  distinguish  them  from  the  older 
lambs.  Therefore,  at  this  season  there  are  two  classes  of  lambs,  known 
respectively  as  "lambs"  and  "spring  lambs."  The  latter  command 
the  higher  prices.  On  the  Chicago  market  this  distinction  is  made 
from  about  the  first  of  April  to  the  middle  of  June.  After  June  15, 
the  lambs  of  the  previous  year  become  yearlings,  ewes,  and  bucks,  and 
the  spring  lambs  are  designated  simply  as  "lambs." 

Guy  C.  Smith  of  the  Commercial  Research  Department  of  Swift 
and  Company  states:^  "Lambs  begin  moving  to  market  first  from 
California.  This  occurs  in  April  and  extends  through  June.  Then 
come  Texas  lambs  running  through  May,  June,  and  July.  These  are 
followed  by  lambs  from  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  which  begin  coming 
in  June  and  extend  through  August.  These  are  followed  by  lambs 
from  Virginia  and  Maryland  in  July  and  August.  Spring  lambs  from 
the  north  central  states  are  marketed  chiefly  from  July  to  November 
and  from  eastern  Canada  during  September  and  October.  The  lambs 
from  the  range  states  run  from  September  to  November  while  fed  lambs 
from  the  north  central  states  are  marketed  from  December  through 
to  April." 

To  the  foregoing  it  may  be  added  that  Colorado  uses  peas,  corn, 
and  alfalfa  extensively  in  lamb  feeding,  and  that  in  Idaho,  Montana, 
and  other  western  states,  lambs  are  frequently  kept  over  and  finished 
during  fall  and  winter  on  hay,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  barley. 

The  grades  of  killing  lambs  are  prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  and 
common.  The  grade  of  a  lamb  depends  upon  its  form,  quality,  condi- 
tion, and  weight. 

Prime  lambs. — Only  the  best  lambs,  or  those  that  are  superior  in 
form,  quality,  condition,  and  weight,  are  graded  as  prime,  and  com- 
paratively few  lambs  received  at  the  markets  can  qualify  as  prime 
lambs.  They  are  used  to  supply  the  demands  of  the  fancy  city  market, 
hotel,  club,  and  restaurant  trade.     (See  Figs.  82  and  83.) 

L  Form. — The  buyer  demands  the  form  that  shows  the  most 
development  of  loin,  back,  and  leg  of  mutton,  these  being  the  regions 
of  high-priced  cuts.  The  lamb  should  be  broad,  deep,  short  of  leg, 
and  free  from  paunchiness.  Fullness  and  smoothness  of  form  are 
important  as  indications  of  high  condition,  thickness  and  evenness  in 


1  Geographic  Influences  in  Marketing  Illustrated  by  the  Meat  Industry,  Journal 
of  Geography,  Oct.,  1921,  pp.  247,  248. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


249 


fleshing,  and  a  high  dressing  percentage.  Undocked  Iambs  are  dis- 
criminated against  because  of  greater  waste  in  dressing  and  because  a 
long  tail  indicates  that  the  producer  was  careless  in  his  methods  of 
feeding  and  management. 

2.  Quality. — The  indications  of  quality  are  a  medium-sized, 
clean-cut  head,  fine  bone,  and  smooth  form  and  fleshing.  These  insure 
fineness  in  texture  of  flesh,  increase  the  dressing  percentage,  and  add 
to  the  attractive  appearance  of  the  carcass;  hence  quality  is  an  im- 
portant factor  in  determining  the  grade  and  price  of  lambs. 

3.  Condition  or  finish. — Lambs  fatten  more  slowly  than  mature 
sheep  and  the  lamb  is  seldom  made  too  fat,  while  in  the  finishing  of 
older  animals  this  is  easily  possible.  A  high  degree  of  finish  in  the  lamb 
is  desired  because  the  fat  lamb  dresses  a  higher  percentage  of  carcass 
than  the  thin  lamb;  the  carcass  is  more  attractive  in  appearance;  and 


^?.sr 


:• — f"""^^-""'"* 


"^•^'^ 


/"  ^^i75 


Fig.  84. — Choice  western  lambs. 

fat  meat,  especially  meat  interspersed  with  fat,  called  "marbling,"  is 
more  tender  and  juicy  and  of  better  flavor  than  lean  meat.  The 
lamb's  covering  of  flesh  should  be  deep,  even,  smooth,  and  firm,  yet 
springy  to  the  touch.  High  condition  is  indicated  by  a  thick  covering 
over  the  loin,  back,  and  ribs;  by  fullness  of  neck,  breast,  and  flanks; 
and  by  a  thick  dock  and  mellow  purse. 

4.  Weight.— The  most  desirable  lamb  is  the  handy-weight  lamb 
weighing  80  pounds.  Three  divisions  are  made  in  the  lamb  class 
according  to  weight— light  and  handy  weight,  medium  weight,  and 
heavy  weight.  These  are  important  because  weight  is  a  prominent 
factor  in  determining  the  grade  and  price  of  lambs.  W.  C.  Coffey, 
formerly  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  states  ^  that  early  spring 


1111.  Bui.  129,  Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Sheep,  p.  584.  The  writer  is 
indebted  to  this  bulletin  for  many  of  the  specifications  included  in  this  chapter  rela- 
tive to  the  market  classes  and  grades. 


250  Types  and  Marpcet  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

lambs  with  quality  and  finish  may  easily  command  top  prices  when 
they  weigh  little  more  than  60  pounds,  and  that  during  summer  months 
lambs  weighing  65  to  70  pounds  are  in  strong  demand,  but  that  there 
never  is  a  time  when  lambs  weighing  80  pounds  will  not  sell  as  prime 
if  they  have  fancy  form  and  quality  and  prime  condition.  He  also 
states  that  the  best  native  lambs  weighing  100  pounds  occasionally  sell 
as  prime  lambs,  though  such  cases  are  exceptional,  and  he  adds  that 
a  slight  departure  from  the  most  popular  weight  does  not  lessen  the 
price  of  the  lamb  as  much  as  an  equal  departure  from  the  most  desirable 
quality  and  condition. 

Foreign  material  and  moisture  in  the  fleece  add  to  the  weight, 
injure  the  appearance,  and  lessen  the  dressing  percentage.  Buyers 
either  refuse  to  bid  on  wet  sheep  or  offer  prices  which  make  allowance 
for  the  added  weight.     At  most  central  markets  the  sheep  and  hog 


Fig.  85.— Good  lambs. 

pens  are  under  roof,  but  sheep  may  have  wet  fleeces  upon  their  arrival 
in  the  pens.  Mud,  sand,  manure,  and  other  foreign  material  in  the 
fleece  also  result  in  lower  prices.  It  pays  to  market  all  sheep  in  clean 
condition. 

Choice  lambs. — This  grade  includes  most  of  the  better  lamb  offer- 
ings upon  the  Chicago  market.  Lambs  cannot  be  very  deficient  in 
form,  quality,  finish,  or  weight,  and  grade  as  choice.  Deficiency  in 
quality  or  in  weight  frequently  accounts  for  failure  to  grade  as  prime, 
but  lack  of  condition  is  the  most  common  cause.     (See  Fig.  84.) 

Good  lambs. — Marked  deficiency  in  form,  quality,  condition,  or 
weight,  or  a  slight  deficiency  in  each,  puts  the  lamb  into  the  good  grade. 
Lack  of  quality  and  lack  of  condition  are  the  most  frequent  causes  of 
failure  to  grade  higher  than  good.     (See  Fig.  85.) 

Medium  lambs. — Here  the  form  is  frequently  faulty,  and  the  con- 
dition and  quality  fall  far  below  the  standard.     Long,  narrow,  rough 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  251 

Iambs  much  lacking  in  flesh  grade  here.  They  are  often  paunchy. 
Western  lambs  which  lack  condition  usually  classify  as  feeders  unless 
they  are  very  coarse,  hence  this  grade  is  mostly  filled  by  native  lambs. 

Common  lambs. — Coarse,  rough,  thin  lambs  grade  as  common. 
Many  of  them  are  of  very  light  weights,  ranging  from  30  to  50  pounds. 
However,  coarse  buck  lambs  and  those  which  are  staggy  because  of 
late  castration  also  grade  as  common,  and  these  sometimes  weigh  up 
to  100  pounds.  Failure  to  castrate,  failure  to  castrate  at  the  right  time, 
and  infestation  by  internal  parasites  frequently  explain  the  common 
lamb's  coarseness  and  thin  condition.  Western  shepherds  do  not 
neglect  to  dock  and  castrate,  and  western  lambs  are  free  from  internal 
parasites.     The  majority  of  common  lambs  are  natives. 

Many  uncastrated  lambs  still  come  to  market  and  they  are  dis- 
criminated against  rather  severely  at  times  by  buyers.     Ram  lambs 


Fig.   ^t).-    Comiiiuii   lambs. 

are  so  restless  that  they  do  not  acquire  the  finish  of  wether  lambs. 
This  is  especially  true  after  they  have  reached  the  age  of  3  or  4  months. 
Tests  have  shown  that  wether  lambs  make  11  per  cent  more  gains  in 
weight  than  do  ram  lambs  under  similar  conditions, '  and  the  difference 
in  fatness  is  much  more  marked.  Lambs  should  be  docked  and  cas- 
trated when  from  7  to  10  days  old. 

Why  some  lambs  sell  at  a  loss. — An  editorial  in  the  National 
Stockman  and  Farmer  of  August  5,  1922,  entitled  "A  Lamb  Market 
Lesson,"  contained  the  following:  "On  an  eastern  market  last  week 
a  buyer  had  orders  for  three  carloads  of  choice  fat  lambs  and  couldn't 
find  them.  On  the  same  day  and  market  another  buyer  had  orders  for 
feeder  lambs  and  couldn't  get  them.    Yet  there  was  a  big  supply  of 


ij.  B.  Spencer:  Sheep  Husbandry  in  Canada,  Dom.  Can.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  12, 
p.  59. 


252  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

lambs  on  the  market  that  day,  more  than  sellers  could  dispose  of,  and 
prices  broke  badly.  There  is  a  reason  for  everything,  and  there  are 
reasons  why  a  market  may  have  too  many  lambs  and  too  few  at  the 
same  time.  The  scarcity  of  good  fat  lambs  this  year  is  due  in  part  to 
the  season.  Most  of  the  lambs  from  eastern  territory  come  off  grass, 
and  the  grass  has  not  made  them  so  fat  as  usual  this  time.  *  *  * 
The  scarcity  of  feeder  lambs  on  that  market  was  due  entirely  to  fail- 
ure to  dock  and  castrate.  Most  of  the  lambs  were  in  feeder  flesh  but 
unfit  to  go  back  to  the  country  because  they  had  not  been  docked  and 
castrated.  Hence  they  had  to  sell  at  meat  prices,  and  a  light,  thin 
Iamb  is  worth  about  as  little  for  meat  as  anything  that  stands  on  four 
legs.  There  is  certainly  one  lesson  for  producers  here,  possibly  two. 
Will  we  learn  either  of  them?" 


Kk;.   ^7.     J'rimc  western  yearlings. 

The  market  report  in  the  Breeder's  Gazette  for  September  28, 
1922,  contained  the  following:  "The  profitable  native  lamb  is  the 
product  of  a  well-nurtured  ewe  and  a  purebred  sire.  It  should  be 
trimmed  in  western  style,  in  order  to  command  maximum  results,  which 
are  impossible  with  coarse  ram  lambs,  which  are  plentiful  at  the 
markets,  and  are  severely  penalized.  A  trimmed  lamb  that  does  not 
fatten  by  weaning  time  may  be  held  on  feed,  thus  distributing  the  crop 
over  a  longer  period;  otherwise  it  must  go  to  the  butcher  in  common 
with  a  mass  of  mediocrity  and  trash  that  represents  uneconomical  if 
not  wasteful  production.  Even  if  it  is  necessary  to  market  a  thin 
trimmed  native  lamb,  it  is  eligible  to  the  feeder  outlet  under  new  condi- 
tions; whereas  a  buck  lamb  must  be  sold  for  what  it  will  bring,  which 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  253 

is  little,  under  normal  supply  conditions.  There  need  be  no  discussion 
of  the  advisability  of  trimming  lambs;  in  fact,  it  would  be  as  logical 
to  mature  boar  pigs  as  ram  lambs." 

Yearlings. — This  class  includes  yearling  wethers  only.  Yearling 
ewes  and  bucks  are  excluded.  As  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
yearlings  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  lambs  in  the  meat  trade.  The 
yearling's  ability  to  substitute  for  lamb  depends  upon  his  weight,  con- 
dition, quality,  and  form,  and  the  nearer  he  approaches  the  prime  lamb 
in  these  respects,  the  higher  price  he  will  bring.  Most  yearling  wethers 
will  "break"  at  the  break-joint  (described  in  Chapter  XVI)  but 
most  yearling  ewes  will  not.     Because  the  yearling  ewe  cannot  be 


Fie..   88. — Guud  yearling:,. 

relied  upon  to  show  the  break-joint,  the  term  "yearling"  on  the  sheep 
market  means  yearling  wethers  only.     The  supply  is  very  limited. 

Yearlings  are  designated  according  to  weight  as  light  weights, 
medium  weights,  and  heavy  weights.  Weight  is  important  because  the 
yearling  is  valued  in  proportion  to  his  resemblance  to  the  prime  lamb. 
Light  weights  ranging  from  80  to  90  pounds  are  preferred.  Relatively 
few  yearlings  weighing  over  90  pounds  grade  higher  than  choice,  and 
few  heavy-weight  yearlings  (100  pounds  and  up)  grade  higher  than 
good.  However,  high  condition  is  of  even  greater  importance  than 
weight.  A  thin  yearling  of  the  right  weight  is  not  a  good  lamb  sub- 
stitute. The  higher  grades  of  yearlings  combine  light  weight  and  high 
condition.     The  lower  grades  are  deficient  in  both  respects.     The 


254 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


grades  of  yearlings  are  prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  and  common. 
These  closely  resemble  the  similar  grades  of  lambs  which  have  been 
described. 

Wethers. — This  class  is  composed  of  mature  wethers.  The  supply 
of  these  is  very  limited  and  is  diminishing  because  their  production  is 
not  economical  or  profitable.  Practically  all  of  them  are  westerns. 
Their  carcasses  supply  hotel,  club,  restaurant,  and  other  trade  where 
the  heavier  cuts  may  be  used  to  advantage.  Extremely  fat,  "gobby" 
wethers  and  big,  plain  wethers  are  discriminated  against.  The  grades 
are  prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  and  common,  chiefly  according  to 
form,  quality,  and  condition. 

Ewes. — Old  ewes  discarded  as  breeders  and  surplus  breeding  ewes 
chiefly  compose  this  class  and  wide    differences    are    noticeable    in 


Fig.  89. — Prime  native  wethers. 


the  age,  condition,  and  weight  of  offerings.  The  supply  of  ewes  for 
killing  purposes  is  much  larger  than  that  of  wethers,  and  most  mutton 
carcasses  are  ewe  carcasses.  As  a  rule,  ewes  dress  a  lower  percentage 
and  yield  proportionately  less  lean  meat  than  wethers,  and  hence  bring 
a  lower  price.  The  higher  grades  of  ewes  supply  hotel  and  restaurant 
trade,  while  the  lower  grades  supply  the  demand  for  cheap  mutton  in 
cities  and  elsewhere.  The  grades  of  ewes  are  choice,  good,  medium, 
and  common,  according  to  form,  quality,  and  condition.  The  higher 
grades  are  relatively  scarce.  Advanced  age  and  low  condition  feature 
the  common  grade. 

Bucks  and  stags. — The  supply  of  these  is  limited  and  they  are  of 
no  special  importance  to  the  producer  of  mutton.  The  grades  are 
good,  medium,  and  common. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


255 


Feeder  Sheep 

The  chief  distinction  between  mutton  sheep  and  feeder  sheep  is 
the  degree  of  condition.  Other  differences  are  noticeable,  however, 
for  sheep  and  lambs  are  not  in  demand  as  feeders  unless  they  are  at 
least  reasonably  good  in  form,  quality,  and  constitution.  After  packers 
have  selected  those  animals  which  are  in  desirable  condition  for  killing 
purposes,  there  remains  a  large  number  which  are  more  or  less  lacking 
in  finish.  From  among  these,  feeder  buyers  select  those  which  are  of 
desirable  form,  quality,  constitution,  and  weight  for  feeding  purposes. 
Frequently  packer  buyers  compete  with  feeder  buyers  for  such  sheep, 
and  the  high  bidder  gets  them.     If  there  are  more  of  them  than  feeder 


Fig.  90.  -Common  western  wethers. 


buyers  can  use,  the  packer  must  take  a  number  of  them,  but  if  the 
supply  is  rather  limited  the  feeder  buyer  usually  gets  most  of  them. 
In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  the  sheep  market  receives  inferior  animals 
of  all  ages,  sexes,  and  weights,  which  are  too  thin  to  be  good  killers  and 
which  cannot  be  sold  as  feeders  because  they  are  coarse  and  rough,  old, 
unthrifty,  lacking  vitality,  inferior  in  form,  lame,  uncastrated,  un- 
docked,  burry,  black,  open  fleeced,  badly  wrinkled  or  otherwise  un- 
desirable. These  sell  for  slaughter  and  fill  the  lower  grades  in  their 
respective  classes. 

The  supply  of  feeders  and  the  demand  for  them  is  greatest  during 
September,  October,  and  November,  when  large  shipments  are  received 
from  the  West.  As  previously  explained,  practically  all  sheep  sold 
from  the  markets  as  feeders  are  those  grown  on  western  ranges.     During 


256  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

the  last  few  years,  however,  due  to  increased  demand  for  feeders  and 
somewhat  lessened  receipts  of  westerns,  some  increase  has  been  notice- 
able in  the  number  of  native  lambs  accepted  for  feeding  purposes. 
The  classes  of  feeder  sheep  are  lambs,  yearlings,  wethers,  and  ewes. 

Feeder  Iambs. — This  is  the  most  important  and  by  far  the  most 
numerous  class  of  feeder  sheep.  The  grades  are  fancy  selected,  choice, 
good,  medium,  and  common. 

Fancy  selected  feeder  Iambs  include  a  relatively  small  number  of 
high-class  lambs  that  carry  more  condition  and  weight  than  the  bulk 
of  feeder  lambs  and  hence  require  only  a  short  feeding  period  to  finish 
them  into  prime  lambs.  The  range  in  weight  is  from  65  to  70  pounds. 
They  must  show  very  good  breeding,  excellent  form,  high  quality, 
strong  constitution,  dense  fleeces  of  clean  wool,  and  marked  uniformity 
in  type  and  size. 


Fig.  91. — Fancy  selected  feeder  lambs. 

Choice  feeder  Iambs. — Most  of  the  better  lambs  purchased  for 
feeding  purposes  are  of  the  choice  grade  rather  than  fancy  selected. 
Under  good  management  and  with  a  longer  feeding  period  they  may  be 
finished  into  prime  lambs.  The  points  which  determine  the  grade  and 
value  of  a  feeder  lamb  are  weight,  breeding,  form,  quality,  constitution, 
condition,  fleece,  sex,  and  uniformity. 

1.  Weight  is  of  great  importance  because  of  the  packer's  prefer- 
ence for  handy-weight  lambs.  In  selecting  feeder  lambs  it  is  essential 
to  select  weights  which  will  permit  of  taking  on  a  finish  without  exceed- 
ing an  80  to  85-pound  limit  when  the  animals  are  returned  to  the 
market.  Therefore  the  weight  selected  will  depend  somewhat  on  the 
condition  of  the  lambs.  If  they  are  lacking  in  flesh  to  a  marked  degree, 
lighter  weights  must  be  selected  than  in  the  case  of  feeder  lambs  carry- 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


257 


ing  more  flesh.  A  very  popular  weight  for  the  bulk  of  feeder  lambs 
is  around  55  pounds,  though  choice  feeder  lambs,  which  carry  some- 
what more  flesh  than  the  average,  weigh  from  55  to  65  pounds.  As  a 
rule,  the  55-pound  lamb  can  be  finished  in  the  usual  90  to  120-day 
feeding  period  at  a  weight  of  around  80  pounds.  Western  lambs 
usually  make  average  monthly  gains  on  feed  of  from  7  to  10  pounds 
per  month,  including  considerable  time  required  to  get  them  safely  on 
full  feed. 

2.  Breeding. — All  western  lambs  carry  considerable  Merino 
breeding,  but  the  percentage  varies  greatly.  Those  strongest  in 
Merino  breeding  are  very  much  wrinkled,  narrow  and  leggy,  very  un- 
even in  their  lines,  and  have  white  faces  and  legs.  Lambs  from  western 
flocks  which  have  used  mutton  rams  extensively  are  preferred.  They 
are  free  from  wrinkles,  more  blocky  and  low-set  in  form,  fairly  straight 


Fig.  92.— Good  feeder  lambs. 

in  their  lines,  and  often  show  brown  spots  and  more  or  less  of  a  brown 
coloring  on  the  face  and  legs.  Such  lambs  are  usually  thicker  fleshed, 
have  greater  capacity  for  feed,  and  finish  more  rapidly  than  those 
which  are  especially  strong  in  Merino  breeding.  Lambs  of  very  in- 
ferior type,  coarse  in  head  and  bone,  rough  in  form,  or  unthrifty  and 
weak  in  appearance  are  usually  of  inferior  breeding  from  flocks  where 
grade  or  scrub  sires  are  used,  and  are  to  be  avoided  for  feeding  purposes. 
3.  Form. — Making  due  allowance  for  lack  of  condition,  the  form 
desired  in  the  feeder  lamb  is  similar  to  that  desired  in  the  prime  lamb. 
If  the  front  legs  "come  out  of  the  same  hole,"  as  the  saying  goes,  and 
the  form  is  narrow  and  decidedly  rangy  and  leggy,  the  lamb  is  a  slow 
finisher,  though  it  may  make  good  gains  in  growth.  The  wide,  deep, 
moderately  compact,  fairly  low-set,  straight-lined,  full-middled  lamb 
not  only  makes  the  most  satisfactory  gains  and  finishes  the  quickest, 
but  it  brings  the  highest  market  price  when  finished.     Paunchy  lambs 


258 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


are  discriminated  against.  Because  of  their  Merino  breeding,  western 
lambs  are  usually  not  as  good  in  form  as  in  quality,  but  the  form  here 
described  represents  the  desired  standard. 

4.  Quality.— A  high  degree  of  quality  is  desired,  as  shown  by 
neatness  of  head,  fineness  of  bone,  and  smoothness  of  form.  These 
features  should  not  be  so  pronounced  as  to  result  in  weakness  of  con- 
stitution and  lack  of  vigor,  but  they  should  be  well  marked.  Coarse- 
ness and  roughness  are  decidedly  objectionable. 

5.  Constitution  and  thrift.— Width  and  depth  of  middle,  full 
heart-girth,  short  neck  and  legs,  and  a  fair  degree  of  style  and  activity, 
are  indications  of  constitution,  thrift,  and  vigor.  Lame,  inactive,  and 
weak  lambs  should  be  rejected. 

6.  Condition. — Lambs  so  thin  as  to  be  emaciated  and  weak  are 
discriminated  against,  as  it  is  a  question  whether  they  will  respond  to 


Fig.  93. — Common  feeder  lambs. 

feeding,  and  there  is  danger  of  losing  a  considerable  number  of  them 
before  they  are  finished.  Feeder  lambs  should  carry  enough  condition 
to  make  them  reasonably  full  in  their  outlines,  thrifty,  and  healthy. 

7.  Fleece. — A  fairly  dense  fleece  of  clean  white  wool  affords  pro- 
tection during  winter  feeding  and  assists  in  selling  at  top  prices  to 
packer  buyers.  It  is  true  that  the  best  carcass  is  seldom  found  under 
the  heaviest  and  densest  fleece,  but  a  good,  clean  fleece  on  the  feeder 
lamb  is  desirable  for  the  reasons  mentioned.  Black  lambs  spoil  the 
appearance  of  the  load,  and  burry  fleeces  and  those  in  very  dirty  condi- 
tion lessen  the  value  of  the  finished  lambs. 

8.  Sex. — Buck  lambs  are  disqualified  for  feeding  purposes  for 
reasons  previously  mentioned.  Wether  lambs  are  slightly  preferred  to 
ewe  lambs,  but  no  sorting  is  done  on  this  account,  both  wethers  and 
ewes  being  taken  without  making  any  distinction  as  to  price. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  259 

9.  Uniformity  is  highly  desirable  because  it  gives  a  sameness  in 
size  and  type  that  is  the  best  guarantee  of  uniformity  in  gains  and  finish, 
and  it  adds  greatly  to  the  appearance  of  the  load  on  the  market. 

Good  feeder  lambs  are  about  average  in  their  qualifications  for 
feeding  purposes,  yet  capable  of  making  satisfactory  gains.  Many  of 
them  are  deficient  in  form  and  quality.  They  average  lighter  in  weight 
and  lower  in  condition  than  lambs  of  the  choice  grade,  and  require  a 
longer  feeding  period  to  finish  them. 

Medium  feeder  lambs  are  deficient  in  weight,  breeding,  form, 
quality,  constitution,  and  condition,  and  are  less  uniform  than  the 
higher  grades.  Many  of  them  are  decidedly  long,  leggy,  and  angular 
in  form,  and  their  wrinkled  skins  are  evidence  of  much  Merino  breed- 
ing. 

Common  feeder  lambs  are  mostly  very  small,  light-weight  lambs 
that  are  much  lacking  in  thrift  and  vitality.  They  weigh  from  25  to 
45  pounds  and  require  a  long  feeding  period  and  careful  management 
to  finish  them.  They  have  one  advantage  in  that  they  may  be  re- 
turned to  market  late  in  the  season  weighing  80  pounds  or  less,  at  which 
time  such  weights  enjoy  a  maximum  premium  in  competition  with  the 
heavy  lambs  which  are  then  plentiful.  Common  feeder  lambs  also 
include  some  lambs  of  heavier  weights  which  are  very  coarse  in  quality 
and  rough  in  form.     Uniformity  is  decidedly  lacking. 

Feeder  yearlings. — This  class  is  composed  of  yearling  wethers,  and, 
as  the  mutton  yearling  should  be  able  to  substitute  for  lamb,  quality 
and  weight  are  of  great  importance  in  grading  feeder  yearlings.  They 
are  not  a  prominent  feature  in  the  feeder  trade,  as  but  few  appear  on 
the  market.    The  grades  are  choice,  good,  medium,  and  common. 

Feeder  wethers. — The  supply  is  very  small.  The  grades  are 
choice,  good,  medium,  and  common. 

Feeder  ewes. — Most  ewes  suitable  for  feeding  bring  a  higher  price 
when  sold  for  breeding  purposes,  hence  the  supply  of  feeder  ewes  is 
small.  They  exhibit  considerable  variation  in  condition,  quality,  and 
thrift.    The  grades  are  choice,  good,  medium,  and  common. 

Breeding  Sheep 

This  general  class  includes  the  breeding  ewe  and  breeding  buck 
classes,  the  latter  being  of  very  minor  importance.  The  ewes  in 
greatest  demand  and  most  commonly  sold  for  breeding  purposes  are 
two  to  four  years  old,  though  ewes  of  all  ages  sell  for  breeding,  even 
ewe  lambs  being  taken  out  at  times  to  be  developed  for  use  as  breeders. 
For  convenience  in  quoting  prices,  two  divisions  may  be  made  in  breed- 
ing ewes  according  to  age,  one  including  the  yearlings  and  two-year- 
olds,  and  the  other  the  older  ewes.     The  younger  ewes  sell  at  higher 


2G0  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

prices.  This  is  chiefly  because  packers,  who  bid  on  all  ewes,  bid 
highest  on  young  ewes.  Young  ewes,  especially  yearling  ewes,  are  of 
handier  weights,  are  usually  in  higher  condition,  and  some  of  them  have 
the  break-joint  and  can  be  sold  in  the  carcass  as  lambs.  Heavy  ewes 
almost  invariably  sell  on  the  market  at  a  discount,  and  it  logically 
follows  that  a  breeding  ewe  buyer  can  purchase  these  heavier  ewes  for 
less  money  per  cwt.  than  the  lighter  and  younger  stock.  Furthermore, 
two  to  four-year-old  ewes  produce  a  greater  percentage  of  lambs  and 
thriftier  lambs  on  the  average  than  ewes  of  either  greater  or  younger 
age.  Nevertheless,  the  breeder  buyer  can  afford  to  pay  a  higher  price 
per  cwt.  for  a  yearling  because  she  weighs  less  and  because  she  can 
be  used  in  the  flock  for  a  longer  period.  For  all  these  reasons  young 
breeding  ewes  command  higher  prices  but  are  less  sought  after  by 
breeder  buyers  than  are  ewes  two  to  four  years  old. 

W.  C.  Coffey  states^  that  the  most  desirable  breeding  ewes  are 
dark-faced  natives  in  ordinary  field  condition.  He  states:  "Dark- 
faced  ewes  sell  better  than  those  that  are  otherwise  their  equals,  be- 
cause their  lambs,  being  dark  faced,  sell  better  than  light-faced  lambs 
on  the  eastern  markets.  Western  ewes  are  very  popular  for  breeding 
purposes  in  certain  localities,  as  Ohio,  Michigan,  and  western  New 
York,  and  many  engaged  in  the  trade  think  they  should  be  preferred 
over  natives  because  they  are  more  hardy  and  comparatively  free  from 
internal  parasites." 

The  grades  of  breeding  ewes  are  fancy  selected,  choice,  good, 
medium,  and  common. 

Fancy  selected  breeding  ewes. — The  supply  of  this  grade  at  the 
markets  is  very  limited  and  at  times  entirely  lacking.  Fancy  ewes  are 
medium-wooled,  dark-faced  natives  which  plainly  show  in  their  form, 
fleece,  and  markings  that  they  are  well-bred,  high-grade  ewes  of  Shrop- 
shire or  other  dark-faced  breeding.  They  must  be  high-class  in  every 
respect,  stylish,  and  very  uniform  in  appearance. 

Choice  breeding  ewes. — Most  of  the  better  breeding  ewes  avail- 
able at  the  market  belong  to  the  choice,  rather  than  to  the  fancy  grade. 
Choice  ewes  must  be  in  thrifty,  vigorous  condition.  Since  very  fat 
ewes  are  not  usually  satisfactory  breeders  or  good  mothers  and  since 
packers  pay  a  premium  for  finish,  such  ewes  ordinarily  sell  to  packer 
buyers,  while  buyers  of  breeding  ewes  make  their  selections  from  those 
carrying  moderate  flesh.  Choice  ewes  must  be  superior  in  breeding, 
form,  quality,  constitution,  and  fleece,  and  sound  in  mouth  and  udder. 
They  should  be  smooth,  low-set,  symmetrical,  and  moderately  compact 
in  form,  and  in  common  with  all  breeding  females  they  should  have 
wide,  deep,  roomy  middles,  providing  ample  feeding  and  breeding 


Ull.  Bui.  129,  Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Sheep,  p.  627. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  261 

capacity,  and  full  heart-girths,  indicating  strong  constitutions.  They 
should  have  straight,  strong  tops.  They  should  possess  a  high  degree 
of  quality  and  femininity  as  shown  by  refinement  of  head  and  face, 
trim  necks,  and  bone  of  medium  size.  They  should  have  dense,  clean 
fleeces  of  a  good  quality  of  wool. 

Concerning  the  matter  of  soundness  in  breeding  ewes,  W.  C. 
Coffey  states:  ^  "A  broken  mouth,  which  means  missing  teeth  or  teeth 
worn  down  short,  indicates  advanced  age,  and  although  ewes  may  other- 
wise look  desirable  for  breeding  purposes,  they  cannot  grade  as  choice 
if  the  teeth  are  not  intact.  It  is  necessary  that  the  choice  breeding 
ewe  have  a  sound  udder,  and  it  is  pronounced  sound  when  it  is  soft 
and  pliable  to  the  touch,  without  abnormal  development  on  either  side. 
Any  ewe  not  having  a  sound  udder  should  be  rejected  as  a  breeder, 
but  in  the  good  and  common  grades  some  carelessness  is  exhibited  in 
this  respect." 

Good  breeding  ewes  approach  choice  ewes  in  many  respects,  but 
are  rather  deficient  in  form,  quality,  condition,  and  other  essential 
points. 

Medium  breeding  ewes  include  many  ewes  rather  advanced  in 
age  and  only  fair  in  form,  quality,  and  other  requirements.  Buyers 
of  this  grade  are  not  particular  as  to  markings  and  soundness.  Medium 
breeding  ewes  are  decidedly  plain  and  much  lacking  in  uniformity. 

Common  breeding  ewes  show  advanced  age,  mixed  breeding,  and 
inferior  type. 

Breeding  bucks. — Rams  are  taken  out  of  the  Chicago  and  other 
markets  for  breeding  purposes,  but  most  of  them  are  of  poor  form  and 
mixed  breeding.  Anyone  who  has  visited  the  sheep  pens  at  Chicago 
or  at  any  other  large  live-stock  center  will  testify  that  the  breeder  who 
goes  to  the  open  market  to  select  sires  will  never  succeed  in  raising  the 
merit  of  his  flock  above  the  level  of  mediocrity.  The  practice  is  un- 
justifiable and  unprofitable. 

Miscellaneous 

Hot-house  Iambs. — These  are  lambs  produced  out  of  the  usual 
season  and  marketed  during  the  winter  at  8  to  10  weeks  old.  They 
must  be  fat  and  weigh  from  40  to  55  pounds.  They  are  a  fancy  product 
and  go  to  a  special  class  of  trade.  The  central  markets  receive  prac- 
tically no  hot-house  lambs.  The  men  who  have  made  the  most  profit 
from  the  production  of  hot-house  lambs  are  those  who  cater  directly 
to  the  eastern  hotel  and  restaurant  trade.  The  practice  is  to  slaughter 
the  lambs  on  the  farm  where  they  are  produced,  and  pack  the  car- 
casses in  ice  for  shipment,  small  shipments  being  made  regularly  during 


111.  Bui.  129,  p.  629. 


262  Types  and  Makket  Classes  of  Live  Stock   ' 

the  winter  and  early  spring.     The  best  prices  are  paid  for  them  from 
Christmas  to  the  middle  of  March. 

Throw  outs. — When  bands  of  lambs  reach  the  market  they  are  at 
once  sorted  into  the  mutton  and  feeder  classes.  The  buyer  of  the 
feeders  usually  has  the  privilege  of  rejecting  those  not  suitable  for  feed- 
ing purposes.  The  rejections,  called  "throw  outs,"  are  made  up  of 
lambs  that  are  lame,  unthrifty,  blind,  uncastrated,  undocked,  over 
weight,  under  weight,  badly  wrinkled,  sore  mouthed,  burry,  black,  low 
backed,  or  open  fleeced.  They  are  purchased  by  small  city  butchers 
who  have  a  cheap  trade.  They  sell  at  common-lamb  or  medium-lamb 
prices. 


...Sfe^?--   ,  - 

'"'"'                           -^                              '  ^ra^H^iB^Kdi^^ri 

mm^^ 

^^^^gMMUm^^^^j^ 

b^^J^ 

iW                       ^'  * 

Fig.  94. — Canner  ewe. 

Canners  are  mostly  old  thin  ewes,  but  the  canner  class  includes 
all  sheep  and  lambs  sold  for  slaughter  that  are  so  entirely  lacking  in 
fat  and  so  deficient  in  flesh  that  they  cannot  be  sold  over  the  butcher's 
block  as  chops  or  roasts.  They  are  also  too  aged  and  too  deficient  in 
condition  and  vitality  to  sell  for  feeding  purposes.  Some  canner  car- 
casses are  sold  to  meat  dealers  who  have  a  trade  demanding  the  cheap- 
est mutton  for  stewing  or  boiling  purposes.  Some  are  packed  as  potted 
meats,  meat  loaf,  "roast  mutton,"  and  sausage.  ^  Canners  are  most 
numerous  during  the  fall  and  early  winter  months. 

Dead  sheep. — Sheep  which  die  in  transit  are  valued  chiefly  for 
their  wool,  and  many  of  them  arrive  with  the  fleeces  in  such  bad  condi- 
tion that  the  shipper  gets  no  return. 


UU.  Bui.  147,  p.  230. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  263 

Goats  are  important  farm  animals  in  the  rough,  semi-arid  Edwards 
Plateau  region  of  Texas,  and  in  the  valleys  and  plateaus  of  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona.  The  Willamette  valley  of  Oregon  also  has  a 
considerable  number.  Texas  has  over  half  of  the  SV2  million  goats  of 
the  country,  nearly  all  of  them  on  the  Edwards  Plateau  which  embraces 
eight  counties.  In  that  region,  in  many  sections  of  the  South,  and  in 
western  Oregon,  goats  are  used  in  large  numbers  in  clearing  up  cut- 
over  land.  In  Texas  and  Oregon  the  goats  are  mostly  Angoras;  in 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico  the  Angoras  predominate,  though  other 
breeds  are  common;  while  in  the  South  practically  none  of  the  goats 
are  raised  for  their  fleece.  ^ 

Arthur  C.  Davenport  states  ^  that  not  enough  goats  are  received 
at  most  markets  to  attract  any  attention  or  to  cause  any  very  widely 
recognized  grades  to  be  established.  He  states  that  they  are  classified 
as  killers  and  as  feeders  or  "brushers,"  and  that  young  goats,  or  kids, 
fat  enough  for  meat  sell  quite  readily  but  at  lower  prices  than  fat  sheep 
or  lambs.  Angoras  in  feeder  condition  are  taken  to  the  country  to 
graze  down  and  destroy  brush  and  weeds. 

Only  20,027  goats  were  slaughtered  under  federal  inspection  at 
892  establishments  in  the  United  States  in  1921,  as  compared  to 
12,452,435  sheep. ' 

Sheep  Prices  at  Chicago 

Chicago  prices  during  1922. — The  lowest  and  highest  prices  and 
average  prices  paid  on  the  Chicago  market  for  the  various  classes  of 
sheep  in  1922  were  as  follows:  * 

Average 
Class  Range  in  price  price 

Mutton  lambs $6.00-16.65  $13.55 

Native  mutton  lambs 6.00-15.75  13.25 

Western  mutton  lambs 7.75-16.65  13.65 

Spring  lambs 6.00-26.00  

Mutton  yearlings 5.00-14.50  11.15 

Mutton  sheep 50-11.25  7.25 

Native  mutton  sheep 50-11.00  6.55 

Western  mutton  sheep 2.75-11.25  7.50 

Feeder  lambs 7.00-15.60  

Feeder  sheep  and  yearlings 1.75-12.00  .... 

Breeding  ewes 4.00-11.75  

Market  values  of  the  various  classes. — The  comparative  market 
values  of  the  classes  of  mutton  sheep  are  shown  by  the  following  table,  * 
giving  the  yearly  average  prices  at  Chicago  from  1913  to  1922,  and 
also  the  averages  for  the  entire  ten-year  period : 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  486. 

'The  American  Live  Stock  Market — How  It  Functions,  p.  142. 

8U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  735. 

<  Compiled  from  Drovers  Journal  Year  Books  of  Figures. 


264 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


Average  prices  for  mutton  sheep  at  Chicago  for  ten  years 

Year 

Lambs 

Yearlings 

Sheep 

All 
lambs 

All 

Natives 

Westerns 

Natives 

Westerns 

sheep 

1913   

$   7.50 

7.75 
8.85 
10.35 
15.35 
16.25 
15.75 
14.25 
9.20 
13.25 

$  7.85 

8.15 

9.15 

10.90 

15.80 

16.85 

16.25 

14.75 

9.95 

13.65 

$   6.35 

6.55 

7.45 

9.25 

13.00 

13.75 

12.90 

12.10 

7.50 

11.15 

$  5.00 
5.35 
6.10 
7.70 
10.90 
11.75 
9.90 
8.90 
4.50 
6.55 

$    5.30 

5.70 

6.45 

7.95 

11.15 

12.35 

10.50 

9.50 

5.40 

7.50 

$  7.70 

8.00 

9.00 

10.75 

15.60 

16.60 

16.00 

14.60 

9.85 

13.55 

$5.20 

1914   

5.55 

1915   

6.30 

1916   .      .      . . 

7.85 

1917 

1918 

1919 

11.00 
12.15 
10.20 

1920 

9.30 

1921 

5.10 

1922 

7.25 

10-year  average. 

11.85 

12.35 

10.00 

7.65 

8.20 

12.15 

8.00 

The  above  table  shows  that  western  lambs  outsell  native  lambs 
by  50  cents  per  cwt.,  and  western  sheep  outsell  native  sheep  by  55 
cents  per  cwt.  All  lambs  together  have  averaged  $4.15  more  per  cwt. 
than  all  sheep  during  the  ten  years  from  1913  to  1922  inclusive.  Lambs 
sell  $2.15  higher  than  yearlings,  and  yearlings  outsell  sheep  by  $2.00. 
The  inability  of  thin  natives  to  sell  for  feeding  purposes  largely  explains 
the  difference  in  prices  between  native  sheep  and  western  sheep  in  the 
mutton  class. 

Fat  lamb  prices  at  Chicago. — The  accompanying  table  ^  shows  that 
yearly  average  prices  for  mutton  lambs  (including  all  lambs  sold  for 
slaughter  except  spring  lambs)  steadily  and  rapidly  increased  from 
1914  to  1918,  and  then  declined  to  the  amount  of  $6.75  during  1919, 
1920,  and  1921.  This  was  due  to  inflation  of  prices  during  the  World 
War  and  to  severe  depression  or  reaction  following  the  war. 

Monthly  and  yearly  average  prices  for  mutton  lambs  at  Chicago  for  ten  years 


Ten-year 

Month 

1922 

1921 

1920 

1919 

1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

1914 

1913 

average 

January 

$12.45 

$10.90 

$19.50 

$16.25 

$17.20 

$13.85)  $10.30   ($8.40) 

$7.90 

$8.55 

$12.55 

February 

14.50 

9.20 

19.95 

17.40 

16.60 

14.30 

10.90 

8.75 

(7.60) 

8.50 

12.75 

March 

14.40 

9.65 

18.80 

19.05 

17.55 

14.25 

11.10 

9.55 

7.65 

8.60 

13.05 

April 
May 

14.40 

9.60 

18.80 

18.15 

19.20 

14.40 

10.45 

9.65 

(7.60) 

8.40 

13.05 

13.40 

11.10 

17.40 

16.25 

18.00 

16.90 

10.75 

10.10 

8.10 

7.40 

12.95 

June 

(12.15) 

11.00 

14.25 

(14.05) 

16.85 

15.25 

(9.55) 

9.20 

7.95 

(6.85) 

12.70 

July 

12.90 

10.30 

15.55 

17.10 

18.50 

15.65 

10.55 

8.75 

8.45 

7.55 

12.55 

August 

12.55 

9.65 

13.20 

16.75 

17.50 

15.50 

10.75 

8.90 

8.15 

7.40 

12.05 

September 

13.45 

8.80 

13.30 

14.85 

17.25 

17.50 

10.60 

8.75 

7.80 

7.15 

11.95 

October 

13.80 

(8.55) 

12.35 

15.00 

15.35 

17.40 

10.15 

8.75 

(7.60) 

7.05 

(11.60) 

14.10 

8.95 

11.70 

14.50 

15.10 

16.75 

11.40 

8.80 

8.75 

7.25 

11.75 

December 

14.20 

10.80 

(11.20) 

16.40 

(14.60) 

16.45 

12.70 

9.00 

8.30 

7.60 

12.15 

Yearly 

average 

13.55 

9.85 

14.60 

16.00 

16.60 

15.60 

10.75 

9.00 

8.00 

7.70 

12.45 

Highest  monthly  prices  are  printed  in  bold-face  type.  These  are 
scattered  widely,  though  they  occur  most  frequently  in  the  spring — 
March,  April,  and  May.     The  last  column  at  the  right  shows  that 


^  Compiled  from  Drovers  Journal  Year  Books  of  Figures. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


265 


these  three  months  average  highest  for  the  ten  years.  These  are  the 
months  of  small  receipts. 

Lowest  monthly  prices  are  enclosed  in  parenthesis.  These  are 
also  scattered  throughout  the  table,  but  the  ten-year  averages  show 
that  October  (the  month  of  largest  average  receipts)  is  the  month  of 
lowest  average  prices.  The  ten-year  averages  show  a  continued  rise 
from  October  to  March,  and  a  continued  decline  from  April  to  October. 
Between  the  April  and  October  average  prices  for  the  ten  years  the 
difference  in  price  is  $1.45. 

Greater  uniformity  would  occur  in  the  highs  and  lows  of  the 
various  years  had  it  not  been  for  the  fact  that  the  very  marked  and 
long  continued  rise  in  price  from  1914  to  1918  largely  superceded  the 


RECEIPTS 

300  400  500 


PRICES 


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■  JAN 

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C 

1 

^M  ADD 

"^^ 

^■MAVI 

^™ 

^M   Tl  IMI 

^^* 

^^M 

■  JULI 

■  AUGI 

■  5EPI 

1               1               1 

■ 

■OCTI 

i^H  ^^^^1 

■NOVI 

■  DECI 

II 

30             1200             1250            13 

n 

1 

^^ 

"" 

"" 

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^^* 

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^1 

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m 

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IB 

i^n 

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Fig.  95. — Sheep  and  lamb  receipts  and  fat  lamb  prices  at  Chicago.  This 
chart  shows  average  monthly  receipts  of  sheep  and  lambs  in  thousands,  and  monthly- 
average  prices  of  all  lambs  sold  for  slaughter,  except  spring  lambs,  for  ten  years, 
1913  to  1922.  Prices  are  represented  by  black  bars.  Receipts  are  represented  by 
white  bars,  but  each  white  bar  is  prolonged  in  black  to  make  all  of  equal  length,  the 
longer  the  black  coloring  the  smaller  the  average  monthly  receipts.  This  brings  out 
in  striking  manner  the  correlation  between  total  receipts  and  mutton  lamb  prices. 

seasonal  variations  in  establishing  monthly  averages  within  these  years. 
The  same  statement  applies  to  the  drop  in  price  from  1918  to  1921. 
That  there  are  nevertheless  marked  seasonal  variations  in  prices  is 
shown  by  the  monthly  averages  for  the  entire  ten  years.  These 
monthly  averages  are  illustrated  graphically  in  Fig.  95. 

Fat  Iamb  prices  as  related  to  supply.— That  the  price  of  lambs 
varies  directly  in  relation  to  supply  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  chart 
illustrating  the  comparison  between  average  monthly  prices  of  mutton 
lambs  (except  spring  lambs)  and  average  receipts  at  Chicago  for  ten 


266  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

years,  1913  to  1922  inclusive.  Receipts  include  both  sheep  and  lambs, 
but  fully  80  per  cent  of  receipts  are  lambs  and  the  bulk  of  receipts  sell 
for  slaughter,  hence  total  receipts  and  mutton  lamb  prices  permit  of 
comparative  study.  ^  The  chart  strikingly  illustrates  the  fact  that 
supply  and  demand  rule  prices.  Demand  in  this  instance  is  fairly 
constant,  hence  supply  very  largely  determines  prices.  The  chart 
makes  clear  why  prices  are  lowest  in  October  and  highest  during  the 
spring  months. 


1  Figures  are  not  available  giving  the  exact  number  of  lambs  received  monthly 
at  Chicago  or  the  number  sold  for  slaughter.  A  similar  study  of  beef  steer  prices 
could  not  be  made  because  beaf  steers  constitute  less  than  half  of  the  total  receipts 
of  cattle. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
BREEDING  FOR  THE  MARKET 

In  Colonial  times,  sheep  were  all  of  the  coarse-wool  type,  brought 
with  the  settlers  from  England  and  Holland.  They  were  the  unim- 
proved original  stock  from  which  the  present  English  breeds  have 
sprung.  Later,  George  Washington  and  other  leading  agriculturists 
of  the  time  introduced  sheep  representing  the  early  breeding  improve- 
ment in  Europe.  After  the  organization  of  the  national  government 
the  Merinos  made  their  appearance.  In  1860  the  Merino  was  the  out- 
standing feature  among  American  sheep.  In  1870  more  than  four- 
fifths  of  American  sheep  were  Merinos  or  their  grades.  There  were  a 
few  middle-wooled  sheep  and  a  very  few  flocks  of  the  long-wooled 
breeds  in  the  middle  states  and  in  the  Ohio  valley.  The  old  coarse 
wools  were  scattered  through  the  South.  Kentucky  had  the  largest 
number  of  long  wools.  Importations  were  made  from  England  and 
Canada.  In  Texas  and  New  Mexico  were  Mexican  sheep  of  Spanish 
origin  that  had  degenerated  and  almost  reverted  to  the  wild  type. 
Their  fleeces  were  coarse  and  hairy  and  weighed  only  one  or  two 
pounds. 

When  the  first  exports  of  beef  were  made  to  England,  about  1875, 
the  "Scotsman,"  a  Scottish  newspaper,  sent  James  Macdonald  to 
America  to  investigate  the  American  live-stock  industry  and  render 
a  complete  report.  The  results  of  this  investigation  were  published  by 
Mr.  Macdonald  in  1878  in  a  book  entitled,  "Food  From  the  Far  West." 
His  remarks  upon  the  state  of  the  sheep  industry  in  theUnited  States 
at  that  time  were  as  follows: 

"No  one  in  political  or  agricultural  circles,  or  elsewhere,  seems  so 
confident  of  the  export  of  mutton  becoming  or  continuing  so  extensive 
or  so  profitable  as  that  of  beef.  Mutton  is  not  considered  an  important 
article  of  food  in  America,  and  the  feeding  of  sheep  has  received  but 
very  little  attention  from  its  farmers.  Sheep  farming  is  certainly 
carried  on  very  extensively  all  over  America,  especially  in  the  western 
states  of  the  Union  and  on  the  Pacific  slopes;  but,  with  a  few  exceptions 
in  the  older  and  eastern  states,  the  sheep-farmer's  whole  harvest  is  his 
"clip"  of  wool.  There  is  no  demand  for  mutton,  and  therefore  he  pre- 
pares none.  He  keeps  a  class  of  sheep  specially  adapted  for  producing 
wool,  and  allo>vs  his  old  sheep  to  die  away  naturally,  or  go  where  they 
may^hat  is,  if  he  cannot  dispose  of  them,  even  for  a  mere  trifle,  before 
they  reach  the  ripe  old  age  of  eight  or  nine  years." 

267 


268  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

The  number  of  sheep  on  farms  in  the  United  States  on  census 
dates  grew  from  19  million  in  1840,  to  23  in  1860,  35  in  1880,  36  in 
1890,  and  62  in  1900,  and  then  declined  to  52  in  1910,  and  to  35  in 
1920.  The  census  date  was  June  1  until  1910,  when  it  was  changed 
to  April  15.     It  was  changed  to  January  1  in  1920. 

The  number  of  sheep  on  farms  in  the  United  States  on  January  1 
of  the  various  years,  as  estimated  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, was  41  milHon  in  1880,  44  in  1890,  42  in  1900,  57  in  1910,  and 
39  in  1920. 

There  has  been  a  steady  increase  since  1860  in  the  proportionate 
number  of  mutton  sheep.  This  has  been  mostly  due  to  the  increased 
demand  for  meat,  and  partly  to  the  demand  for  wools  other  than  the 
Merino,  that  is,  the  combing  wools.  The  flocks  of  mutton  sheep  in- 
creased in  all  parts  of  the  country,  though  Merino  improvement  was 
still  the  predominating  feature  in  sheep  husbandry  in  Vermont,  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michigan,  and  elsewhere,  and  the  great 
flocks  of  the  ranges  became  Merino  grades  of  a  high  order  of  merit. 
In  recent  years  many  Merino  flocks  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country 
have  been  made  over  into  mutton  flocks  by  several  succeeding  crosses 
of  mutton  blood,  while  on  the  western  ranges  increasing  numbers  of 
mutton  rams  have  been  used  for  crossing  on  range  flocks  to  produce  a 
more  practical  wool-and-mutton  type.  East  of  the  Missouri  river  the 
majority  of  sheep  are  of  the  mutton  type,  while  on  western  ranges 
Merino  blood  predominates. 

The  following  figures  reported  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture show  the  leading  sheep  countries  and  the  number  of  sheep  in  each : 

Numbers  of  sheep  in  leading  countries 

Country  Year  Number  of  sheep 

1.  Australia 1920 77,900,000 

2.  Russia 1921 47,157,000  i 

3.  Argentina 1920 45,767,000 

4.  United  States. .  .  .1923 37,209,000 

5.  Siberia 1915 34,468,000 

6.  India 1920 30,172,000 

7.  South  Africa 1920 29,305,000 

8.  Great  Britain. . .  .1921 24,273,000 

9.  New  Zealand.  .  .  .1921 23,285,000 

10.  Spain 1921 20,522,000 

11.  Italy 1918 11,754,000 

12.  Uruguay 1916 11,473,000 

World  total 465,895,000  * 

'Includes  goats. 

>U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  680.     Includes  51  million  designated  as    sheep  and  goats. 

Mutton  production  and  consumption  in  the  United  States  is  shown 
in  the  following  table  >  giving  the  slaughter,  imports,  exports,  and  con- 
sumption of  mutton  (including  lamb): 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


269 


Estimated  annual  production  and  consumption  of  dressed  mutton  in  the  United  States 


Calendar  year 

Total 
slaughter 

Imports 

Exports 

Consumption 

Total 

Per  capita 

1907 

Million 
pounds 

559 
600 
612 
473 
489 
602 
538 
601 
534 

Million 
pounds 

Million 
pounds 

I 

7 
3 
2 
4 
5 
8 
2 

Million 
pounds 

558 

598 

619 

476 

4831 

607' 

537  1 

6731 

5451 

Pounds 
6  4 

1910 

6  5 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

1921 

1922 

14 

6 

1 

7 

62 

18 

11 

6.2 
4.7 
4.7 
5.8 
5.0 
6.2 
5.0 

'Includes  differences  between  quantities  in  storage  at  beginning  and  end  of  year. 

During  1920,  New  Zealand  frozen  lamb  carcasses  were  imported 
in  large  numbers  amounting  to  over  one-ninth  of  the  total  domestic 
production  of  both  mutton  and  lamb.  British  markets  which  normally 
absorb  the  New  Zealand  product  were  overstocked  following  the  World 
War,  and  the  meat  found  an  outlet  in  this  country. 

Our  production  and  consumption  of  mutton  is  markedly  less  than 
that  of  pork  or  beef,  and  slightly  less  than  that  of  veal. 

The  distribution  of  sheep  in  the  United  States  is  shown  by  the 
numbers  in  the  leading  states  and  in  the  various  geographical  divisions: 
Leading  states  in  numbers  of  sheep  on  farm^,  January  1 ,  1923  - 


State  Number 

1.  Texas 2,862,000 

2.  Idaho 2,642,000 

3.  Colorado 2,444,000 

4.  California 2,402,000 

5.  Wyoming 2,396,000 


value 

$5.20 

6. 

8.30 

7. 

7.60 

8. 

8.10 

9. 

9.00 

10. 

state                          Number  value 

Utah 2,340,000  $8.90 

Montana 2,315,000  8.70 

Ohio 2,094,000  7.10 

New  Mexico . .  .2,062,000  6.40 

Oregon 1,953,000  6.40 


The  estimated  average  value  of  all  sheep  and  lambs  in  the  United 
States  on  January  1,  1923,  was  $7.50. 

Distribution  of  sheep  on  farms  by  geographical  divisions  on  January  1,  1923  ^ 

Division  Number 

North  Atlantic 1,200,000 

South  Atlantic 1,168,000 

North  Central,  East  of  Mississippi  River 4,770,000 

North  Central,  West  of  Mississippi  River 4,324,000 

South  Central 4,399,000 

Far  Western 21,348,000 


Total  United  States 37,209,000 

The  foregoing  figures  show  that  the  far  western  division,  which 
includes  the  range  states,  has  more  sheep  than  all  other  divisions  com- 


^John  Roberts:  Meat  Production,  Consumption,  and  Foreign  Trade  in  United 
States,  1907-1922,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Mimeographed  Report. 
2 Estimates  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


270 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


bined.  In  addition  to  the  large  numbers  west  of  the  Missouri  river, 
sheep  are  densely  distributed  in  central  and  southeastern  Ohio,  south- 
western Pennsylvania,  and  southern  Michigan,  and  are  rather  densely 
distributed  also  in  northern  Kentucky,  southern  Iowa,  and  northern 
Missouri.  Ohio  and  adjoining  territory  constitute  the  most  important 
sheep  raising  section  east  of  the  Missouri  river. 

Centers  of  production. — The  fact  that  the  larger  proportion  of  our 
sheep  are  in  the  West  is  reflected  in  the  location  of  the  center  of  sheep 
production  in  the  United  States.  According  to  the  1920  census,  the 
center  of  sheep  production  is  in  the  southwest  corner  of  Nebraska. 
The  beef  cattle  center  is  in  central  Kansas,  the  dairy  cattle  center  is 
in  western  Illinois,  and  the  hog  center  is  in  northeastern  Missouri. 


Fig.  96. — Distribution  of  sheep  in  the  United  States.  The  dense  spots  shown 
in  the  West  are  due  in  part  to  the  date  of  enumeration,  January  1,  when  many  sheep 
were  being  fed  in  the  irrigated  districts,  and  in  part  to  the  enumeration  of  sheep  in 
that  county  in  which  the  owner  resides,  even  though  the  sheep  may  be  in  a  far  distant 
region. 


These  centers  are  determined  by  drawing  a  line  east  and  west  on  the 
map  so  as  to  equally  divide  the  total  number  of  sheep  or  other  live 
stock  in  the  United  States.  Then  a  line  is  drawn  north  and  south, 
again  equally  dividing  the  total  number  of  animals.  The  intersection 
of  the  two  lines  is  called  the  center  of  production.  The  center  may 
or  may  not  fall  in  a  region  where  a  large  number  of  such  animals  are 
raised. 

Conditions  suitable  to  sheep  breeding. — Sheep  are  rather  similar 
to  cattle  in  their  adaptability  to  range  conditions  and  to  improved  and 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  271 

cultivated  farming  sections  where  there  is  considerable  pasture  together 
with  grain  and  roughage  for  fattening  purposes  and  for  wintering 
breeding  flocks.  Mutton  and  wool  production  necessitates  less  grain 
feeding  than  beef  production,  though  grain  often  may  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage, and  in  some  cases  grain  must  be  used  in  order  to  finish  late 
lambs  and  those  not  well  nourished  by  their  dams.  Many  such  lambs 
are  brought  from  the  West  for  fattening  in  the  central  states.  Sheep 
differ  from  cattle  in  that  they  are  better  suited  to  arid  lands  and  are 
less  suited  to  wet  lands  than  are  cattle.  Sheep  are  best  adapted  of  all 
domestic  animals  to  very  rough  lands.  Sheep  are  especially  suited 
with  the  shorter,  sweeter  grass  of  higher  altitudes,  whereas  cattle  can 
best  utilize  lowland  pastures  of  coarser  and  ranker  growth.  That  sheep 
have  an  important  place  on  high-priced  land  and  in  intensive  farming 
is  shown  by  numerous  instances  in  this  country,  and  also  by  the  large 
numbers  of  sheep  profitably  kept  under  such  conditions  in  Great 
Britain.  Whether  on  western  ranges  or  on  higher-priced  lands  in  the 
Central  West,  East,  and  South,  the  combined  wool-and-mutton  type 
of  sheep,  yielding  annually  a  good  crop  of  lambs  and  a  good  crop  of 
wool,  is  most  profitable.  The  western  sheep  owner  places  more  em- 
phasis on  the  wool,  and  the  sheep  owner  east  of  the  Missouri  river 
favors  the  type  in  which  meat  production  is  more  marked  than  wool 
production,  though  in  both  East  and  West,  neither  wool  nor  mutton 
may  be  ignored. 

Only  purebred  sires  should  be  used  on  any  flock,  and  the  same 
breed  should  be  patronized  each  time  a  ram  is  purchased;  in  other 
words,  breeding  for  the  market  should  not  result  in  a  mixture  of  breeds, 
but  the  owner  should  breed  in  line,  grading  up  his  flock  by  consecutive 
crosses  of  the  same  breed.  Thus  will  the  good  features  of  that  breed 
be  so  strongly  stamped  upon  the  flock  as  to  give  it  a  high  average  of 
individual  merit  and  great  uniformity.  ^ 

The  number  of  registered  purebred  sheep  in  the  United  States  on 
January  1,  1920,  as  reported  by  the  census,  was  463,504,  or  1.3  per  cent 
of  all  the  sheep  in  the  country.  ^ 

Source  of  improvement. — A  certain  few  men  have  collected  the 
very  choicest  purebred  and  registered  sheep  that  may  be  had,  almost 
regardless  of  price,  and  have  established  purebred  flocks  of  the  highest 
excellence.  The  owner  of  such  a  flock  makes  it  his  business  to  supply 
breeding  rams  and  some  breeding  ewes  to  breeders  of  purebred  sheep 


^For  definitions  of  purebred  and  grade,  and  for  discussions  of  the  importance 
of  good  ancestry,  the  utility  value  of  purebred  live  stock,  and  the  grading  process, 
see  Chapter  IX. 

2The  ten  leading  states  in  numbers  of  registered  purebred  sheep  were  Idaho 
47,107,  Ohio  39,444,  Oregon  38,738,  Utah  30,013,  California  28,831,  Montana  24,208, 
Michigan  21,342,  Iowa  19,522,  New  York  18,338,  and  Texas  17,119. 


272  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

of  less  prominence  than  himself.  Year  after  year  he  slowly  improves 
his  flock  by  careful  selection  and  mating,  and  he  is  thus  enabled  to  send 
out  better  rams  each  year  to  head  the  flocks  of  less  prominent  breeders. 
In  turn,  these  less  prominent  flocks  supply  better  breeding  animals  to 
more  numerous  and  still  less  noted  breeders,  and  so  the  scheme  works 
out,  improvement  slowly,  but  surely,  flowing  downward  and  outward 
from  a  few  flocks  to  the  many.  There  is  a  third  class  of  breeders  who 
are  producing  directly  for  the  market.  The  produce  of  their  flocks  goes 
to  market  as  fat  lambs  or  is  sold  into  other  hands  for  feeding  prepara- 
tory to  slaughter.  We  may,  therefore,  classify  all  flocks  of  sheep  as 
follows: 

1.  A  few  purebred  flocks  solely  for  improvement. 

2.  Numerous  purebred  flocks  primarily  for  propagation  and  sec- 
ondarily for  improvement. 

3.  Many  grade  flocks  solely  for  mutton  and  wool  production. 
The  breeders  of  the  third  class  secure  their  rams  from  the  second- 
class  flocks,  and  their  ewes  are  generally  grades. 

The  mutton  breeding  ram. — The  selection  of  the  breeding  ram 
should  be  most  carefully  made  as  he  affords  the  chief  opportunity  for 
improvement  in  the  flock.  For  this  reason  it  is  wise  to  invest  several 
times  the  average  value  of  the  ewes  in  the  purchase  of  a  ram  to  mate 
with  them.  However,  it  is  not  so  much  a  matter  of  securing  a  ram  at 
a  particular  price  as  it  is  of  selecting  a  sire  of  merit  that  is  strong  in 
the  points  wherein  the  ewe  flock  is  weak,  and  whose  off  spring  will  possess 
a  higher  standard  of  merit  than  their  dams.  It  is  a  breeding-up  pro- 
cess, and  this  fact  justifies  more  careful  selection  and  greater  expendi- 
ture of  money  in  each  succeeding  purchase  of  a  ram.  It  is  always  a 
matter  of  locating  the  sort  of  ram  desired,  and  the  price  demanded  for 
him  should  not  stand  in  the  way  of  a  purchase  unless  it  is  really  exorbi- 
tant. 

The  breeding  ram  of  mutton  type  must  be,  first  of  all,  a  good 
mutton  animal,  including  as  high  development  of  the  form,  quality, 
and  fleshing  as  may  be  secured.  He  must,  in  addition,  have  a  strong, 
robust  constitution  as  evidenced  by  a  wide,  deep  chest  and  middle  and 
good  feeding  qualities.  The  story  is  told  of  an  English  shepherd  who 
visited  a  certain  flock  to  purchase  a  yearling  ram.  After  much  delibera- 
tion, he  found  himself  unable  to  decide  among  several  of  the  offerings, 
all  of  which  suited  him.  Suddenly  his  serious  expression  changed  to 
one  of  renewed  interest,  and  turning  to  the  owner  he  said,  "Feed  'em." 
Grain  was  placed  in  a  trough  in  full  view  of  the  rams,  at  sight  of  which 
one  pricked  up  his  ears  and  marched  quickly  to  the  trough,  the  others 
following  more  leisurely.  "That's  him,"  said  the  buyer,  pointing  to 
the  ram  in  front,  for  in  common  with  all  experienced  feeders  he  recog- 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


273 


nized  the  significance  of  good  feeding  qualities.  A  strong  appetite  is 
evidence  of  constitution,  thrift,  lustiness,  and  health,  and  indicates  a 
disposition  to  develop  quickly  and  make  economical  gains. 

The  ram  should  exhibit  strong  sexual  characters,  these  being  a 
strong  head  with  distinctly  masculine  features  and  expression,  a  well- 
developed  crest  or  scrag  similar  to  the  crest  of  the  beef  bull,  a  sufficiency 
of  bone,  and  general  ruggedness  of  build  throughout.  Style  in  the 
ram,  including  an  active  gait  and  bold  presence,  is  an  evidence  of 
masculinity  and  breeding  usefulness.  Particular  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  shape,  position,  and  strength  of  feet,  pasterns,  and  legs. 
These  points  should  receive  attention  in  any  sheep,  but  in  the  breeding 


w 


^f^l.'^^.^ 


Fig.  97. — Correct  type  in  the  mutton  breeding  ram.  Southdown  ram,  Babra- 
ham  Bumper,  champion  at  the  English  Royal  Show.  Bred  and  owned  by  C.  Adeane, 
Babraham  Hall,  Cambridge,  England.  Note  the  masculine  head  and  neck,  blocky 
body,  heavy  leg  of  mutton,  and  good  bone  of  this  ram. 


ram  their  importance  is  magnified.  The  feet  should  be  well  formed, 
the  pasterns  strong,  the  bone  ample,  and  the  legs  straight.  Weakness 
in  the  hind  legs  is  of  more  consequence  than  weakness  in  front,  as  it 
is  more  likely  to  affect  the  usefulness  of  the  ram  as  a  breeder.  The 
hocks  should  not  be  bent  so  as  to  give  the  hind  leg  a  sickled  appearance 
as  viewed  from  the  side;  and  when  viewed  from  the  rear,  the  hind  legs 
should  not  be  bowed  outward,  but  placed  straight  and  square  beneath 
the  quarters.  Weak  or  broken-down  hind  pasterns  are  particularly 
objectionable  in  a  breeding  ram. 


274 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


The  ram's  fleece  should  be  heavy  and  of  good  quahty  according 
to  his  breed,  special  attention  being  given  to  the  wool  in  case  the  ewe 
flock  averages  below  desired  standards  for  fleece. 

So  far  as  the  fatness  of  the  ram  is  concerned,  greater  satisfaction 
will  ordinarily  result  from  the  purchase  of  a  ram  in  medium  condition, 
or  what  shepherds  call  a  "field  ram,"  than  one  that  has  been  much 
pampered  in  preparation  for  sale  or  show.  The  latter  may  present  a 
more  attractive  form  and  appearance  at  the  time  of  purchase,  but  must 
be  let  down  in  flesh  before  he  can  be  used  for  breeding  purposes,  and 
it  is  often  true  that  with  loss  of  fat  there  are  revealed  some  rather  dis- 


FiG.  98. — Correct  type  in  the  breeding  ewe.  Champion  Hampshire  ewe  at  the 
International  Show,  owned  by  A.  W.  Arnold,  Galesville,  Wis.  This  ewe  has  strength 
and  vigor,  combined  with  femininity 'and  quality,  and  her  roomy  middle  and  dense 
fleece  are  valuable  attributes  in  the  breeding  ewe. 

appointing  points  in  form.  This  more  often  happens  when  the  buyer 
is  a  novice  and  the  ram  has  had  the  additional  advantage  of  the  correct- 
ing power  of  shears  in  expert  hands.  In  any  case,  the  purchase  price 
of  a  fitted  ram  must  include  the  cost  of  fitting,  which  may  be  a  con- 
siderable amount.  It  is,  of  course,  a  fact  that  the  very  choicest  rams 
are  highly  fitted  before  being  offered  for  sale,  as  no  flock  owner  expects 
to  realize  full  value  for  an  exceptional  ram  unless  he  is  presented  in 
finished  and  fitted  form;  however,  this  applies  to  the  best  offerings  and 
is  somewhat  outside  of  the  matter  under  consideration.     When  rams 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  275 

are  purchased  to  head  ordinary  flocks  the  produce  of  which  are  sent  to 
market,  it  will  usually  be  best  to  pay  up  to  the  limit  of  price  for  a  field 
ram  that  suits,  rather  than  invest  the  same  amount  in  a  fitted  sheep. 

In  farm  flocks  one  ram  may  be  used  for  every  35  to  50  ewes.  On 
the  range  it  is  customary  to  use  one  ram  for  every  35  to  40  ewes,  A 
ram  lamb  should  not  be  used  for  heavy  service.  The  period  of  gesta- 
tion for  ewes  is  somewhat  variable  but  is  usually  146  days.  Although 
ewe  lambs  are  sometimes  bred  in  the  fall  so  that  they  will  lamb  the 
next  spring  at  a  little  over  a  year  old,  the  usual  plan  is  to  allow  the 
ewe  lambs  to  grow  and  develop  into  their  yearling  form,  breeding  them 
in  the  fall  to  drop  their  first  lambs  the  following  spring  at  two  years 
old.  The  breeding  of  ewe  lambs  is  not  ordinarily  considered  good 
practice. 

The  mutton  breeding  ewe. — Assuming  that  there  is  an  established 
ewe  flock  to  which  additions  are  made  from  the  best  ewe  lambs  of  each 
year,  the  problem  of  the  breeder  is  to  weed  out  the  less  desirable  ewes 
and  send  them  to  the  butcher.  Herein  lies  a  second  advantage  from 
the  use  of  good  males,  for  if  the  sire  proves  a  successful  breeder,  the 
owner  is  furnished  with  excellent  material  with  which  to  replenish  his 
ewe  flock,  thus  permitting  closer  culling  of  the  aged  ewes  than  would 
be  possible  had  an  inferior  ram  been  used.  Hence  the  use  of  a  good 
ram  not  only  results  in  direct  improvement  in  the  first  crop  of  lambs, 
but  there  is  the  added  advantage  of  the  improvement  which  is  realized 
when  the  best  ewe  lambs  reach  breeding  age. 

It  is  easiest  to  cull  the  flock  a  short  time  after  shearing,  allowing 
a  few  days  to  elapse  in  order  that  the  ewes  may  recover  from  the  shabby 
appearance  and  somewhat  disorganized  state  common  to  many  of  them 
immediately  after  being  shorn.  Aged  ewes  and  broken-mouthed  ewes 
should  have  been  weeded  out  the  previous  fall,  the  cost  of  wintering 
them  being  a  needless  expense  inasmuch  as  they  are  difficult  to  winter 
without  becoming  very  low  in  flesh.  The  wintered  ewes  may  then  be 
sorted  two  or  three  weeks  after  shearing;  faulty  forms  and  lack  of  size 
are  easily  detected  at  that  time.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  part  with 
ewes  that  are  aged,  broken  in  mouth,  ruptured,  crippled,  or  defective 
in  udder,  but  it  sometimes  requires  strong  determination  to  give  up 
ewes  that  are  sound,  but  nevertheless  unworthy  because  of  faults  in 
form,  quality,  size,  or  fleece.  This  is  especially  true  when  close  culling 
will  not  leave  as  large  a  flock  as  it  is  desired  to  carry,  but  in  the  long 
run  it  will  be  best  to  err  on  the  side  of  too  close  culling  rather  than  to 
carry  certain  individuals  that  do  not  measure  up  to  desired  standards. 
Form,  size,  quality,  constitution,  muscling,  and  smoothness  of  outline 
should  receive  much  consideration,  the  requirements  for  which  have 
been  set  forth  in  preceding  chapters.     One  word  more,  however,  may 


276 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


well  be  added  on  heads  and  necks.  The  following  by  John  Wrightson 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Science,  London,  England,  is  much  to  the 
point:' 

"Nothing  looks  better  than  good  heads,  and,  strange  as  it  may 
seem,  a  sheep's  head,  which  is  only  worth  9d.  (18  cents)  at  the  butcher's 
is  worth  a  lot  of  money  when  carried  on  a  good  ram  or  ewe.  A  muscular 
neck  indicates  strength  of  constitution  and  good  muscular  development, 
and  I  have  never  known  a  sheep  breeder  who  did  not  strongly  object 
to  a  shabby  neck.  Mr.  Ellman,  the  father  of  the  Southdown  breed, 
insisted  on  the  importance  of  this  point.  Mr.  James  Rawlence,  of 
Bulbridge,  one  of  the  oldest  of  our  noted  breeders,  would  not  keep  a 
weak-necked  ewe,  and  no  man  who  values  his  flock  would  buy  a  ram 
with  this  fault.  The  neck  ought  to  be  muscular,  arched,  tapering,  and 
neat." 


Fig.  99. — A  prize-winning  flock.    First  prize  Shropshire  flock  at  the  Inter- 
national, owned  by  A.  Broughton  and  Sons,  Albany,  Wis. 


Uniformity  in  shape,  size,  color  markings,  and  general  appearance 
is  a  valuable  attribute  in  any  flock.  When  the  produce  is  intended 
for  the  open  market,  this  insures  a  uniform  lot  of  lambs  for  feeding,  and 
it  adds  much  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  finished  lot  when  presented 
to  the  buyer. 

The  breeder  who  aims  to  supply  the  open  market  must  emphasize 
the  matter  of  wool  when  building  up  a  breeding  flock.  Although  meat 
production  is  the  principal  object  in  view,  the  clip  of  wool  from  such  a 
flock  ought  to  be  an  important  source  of  revenue.  Furthermore,  the 
ewe  with  the  heavy  fleece  is  better  protected  from  the  weather,  remains 
more  healthy  for  that  reason,  and  the  density  of  her  fleece  keeps  it 
freer  from  dirt,  manure,  chaff,  and  other  foreign  matter.     Moisture  is 


^Sheep,  Breeds  and  Management,  London,  1908,  p.  126. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


277 


better  excluded  and  the  yolk  thus  becomes  abundant,  protecting  the 
fibers  and  preventing  a  cotted  fleece.  Her  offspring,  being  heavily 
wooled,  is  less  subject  to  chills  and  colds  which  hinder  rapid  growth  and 
development.  And  lastly,  the  heavy  fleece  finds  an  appreciation  on 
the  live-stock  market.  All  along  the  line,  therefore,  from  breeding 
flock  to  packing  house,  the  fleece  with  density,  length  of  staple,  and 
quality  meets  with  approval  and  increases  the  value  of  the  animal  it 
covers. 

It  is  evident  that  it  takes  years  to  build  up  a  flock  of  much  uniform 
merit  and  value.  It  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  stock  a  farm  with  sheep, 
but  whether  or  not  the  undertaking  will  be  successful  depends  very 
largely  upon  the  wisdom  displayed  in  the  culling  of  ewes,  selection  of 


Fig.  100. — A  flock  of  uniform  type. 


rams,  and  general  management  of  the  flock.  In  no  other  kind  of  live 
stock  does  the  individuality  of  the  man  in  charge  display  itself  so 
strongly  as  with  sheep.  Sheep  respond  quickly  to  good  care,  and 
deteriorate  rapidly  when  neglected. 

Although  some  essential  points  in  flock  management  have  neces- 
sarily been  touched  upon  in  discussing  the  elements  that  constitute  a 
good  breeding  ram  and  breeding  ewe,  nevertheless  a  detailed  discussion 
of  sheep  management  cannot  be  presented  here,  as  it  would  require 
much  space  and  is  outside  the  range  of  the  general  subject  in  hand. 
However,  such  important  subjects  as  winter  management  and  feeding 
of  ewes,  feeding  as  a  factor  in  getting  ewes  in  lamb,  dipping,  manage- 


278  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

ment  at  lambing  time,  feeding  and  management  of  ewes  and  lambs, 
docking  and  castrating,  the  feeding  of  lambs,  shearing,  control  of 
internal  parasites,  the  sheep-killing  dog,  crops  to  grow  for  sheep — 
these  and  many  other  subjects  relating  to  sheep  feeding  and  manage- 
ment should  be  carefully  studied  by  anyone  who  contemplates  entering 
the  sheep  business. 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE  MERINO  OR  FINE-WOOL  TYPE 

All  sheep  are  wool  bearing,  but  the  Merino  excels  in  weight  and 
fineness  of  fleece.  The  Merino  is  the  foundation  of  American  sheep 
husbandry.  It  is  the  most  important  sheep  in  America  today,  though 
less  so  than  formerly.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  grade  flocks, 
especially  in  one  section  centering  in  Ohio,  and  another  comprising  the 
territory  west  of  the  Missouri  river,  are  of  fine- wool  origin.  Of  the 
B7,209,000  sheep  in  the  United  States,  21,348,000  are  in  the  western 
division,  and  these  are  largely  of  Merino  breeding.  Many  western 
sheep  are  brought  into  the  corn  belt  for  fattening. 

The  Merino  is  native  to  Spain,  and  from  the  Spanish  Merino  have 
come  all  present  breeds  of  Merino  sheep.  This  stock  existed  in  Spain 
prior  to  the  Christian  era,  but  in  all  its  history  in  Spain  there  is  prac- 
tically no  record  of  attempts  at  improvement.  In  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, Spanish  Merinos  were  taken  to  Saxony,  France,  United  States, 
South  Africa,  Australia,  and  other  countries  in  which  distinct  types 
and  breeds  have  been  developed  by  selection  from  the  old  Spanish 
stock.  Over  20,000  Merino  sheep  were  imported  into  the  United 
States  prior  to  1811,  and  these  formed  the  foundation  of  the  breed 
known  as  the  American  Merino.  Beginning  in  1840,  importations 
of  the  French  Merino  or  Rambouillet  were  made  to  America,  and 
this  breed  is  now  bred  extensively  to  supply  rams  for  western 
flocks. 

The  American  Merino  is  the  outcome  of  efforts  to  develop  a  sheep 
with  a  fleece  of  the  greatest  possible  value.  Some  breeders  carried 
their  eff'orts  so  far  as  to  ignore  the  meat-producing  qualities  of  the 
animals  they  bred,  centering  practically  all  their  attention  on  the  fleece. 
At  best,  the  improvement  of  any  kind  of  live  stock  is  a  difficult  and  slow 
undertaking.  When  improvement  is  sought  in  one  or  a  few  respects, 
the  desired  results  are  secured  more  readily  and  in  greater  perfection 
than  when  an  attempt  is  made  to  improve  the  animal  in  a  rather  large 
number  of  ways.  It  is  still  more  difficult  to  improve  a  breed  of  live 
stock  along  two  or  more  opposing  or  antagonistic  lines,  such  as  beef 
and  milk,  mutton  and  wool,  strength  and  speed,  or  size  and  quality. 
It  was  for  this  reason  that  many  breeders  of  Merino  sheep  in  America 
willingly  sacrificed  the  meat-producing  qualities  of  their  flocks  in  order 
that  the  production  of  wool  might  be  made  as  large  as  possible.  These 
breeders  developed  what  was  formerly  known  as  the  Vermont  Merino, 

279 


280 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


a  type  that  contrasts  with  mutton  type  as  strongly  as  dairy  cattle 
contrast  with  beef  cattle. 

Other  breeders  of  fine-wool  sheep  did  not  entirely  ignore  the 
mutton  qualities  of  their  animals,  but  placed  some  emphasis  upon  a 
good  conformation  and  a  reasonable  degree  of  fleshing;  at  the  same 
time  they  gave  most  attention  to  the  weight  and  quality  of  fleece. 
Eff"orts  of  this  kind  in  America  resulted  in  the  creation  of  what  is  known 
as  the  Delaine  type  of  the  American  Merino;  in  France  similar  efforts 
resulted  in  the  breed  known  as  the  French  Merino  or  Rambouillet. 
Thus  a  type  was  established  having  better  mutton  qualities,  a  smoother 


Fig.  101. — Class  A  Merino  ram. 

skin,  a  fleece  of  greater  length  and  uniformity,  and  a  type  that  is  shorn 
much  more  easily  because  of  its  freedom  from  wrinkles.  Broadly 
speaking,  however,  the  differences  mentioned  in  the  ideals  of  breeders 
of  fine-wool  sheep  have  not  resulted  in  enough  variation  in  type  to 
prevent  a  satisfactory  study  of  fine-wool  sheep  as  a  single  group  or 
type. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  fine-wool  sheep  is  very  distinctive. 
In  a  general  way,  the  conformation  resembles  that  of  the  dairy  cow. 
There  is  the  same  narrowness  of  forequarters  and  moderate  width  of 
back  and  body,  the  same  muscular  rather  than  fleshy  covering,  and  the 
same  tendency  to  be  somewhat  rangy  of  body  and  long  of  leg.    As 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  281 

compared  with  the  mutton  type,  there  is  proportionately  more  length 
and  narrowness  of  head,  more  length  and  thinness  of  neck,  less  arch 
of  rib,  and  less  development  of  thigh  and  twist.  These  differences  are 
marked,  so  that  shorn  of  their  fleeces,  the  two  types  of  sheep  present 
striking  differences  in  form.  When  viewed  in  the  wool,  further  varia- 
tions are  manifest.  The  fleece  of  the  fine- wool  sheep  is  more  compact 
and  is  often  very  dark  in  color,  the  latter  being  due  to  the  very  heavy 
secretion  of  yolk  which  catches  dust  and  dirt  and  produces  a  black  gum 
on  the  exterior  of  the  fleece.  The  mutton-type  sheep  has  a  smooth 
skin,  but  the  fine-wool  type  has  a  loose  skin  lying  more  or  less  in  folds 
or  wrinkles.  Sometimes  there  are  only  a  few  folds  about  the  breast 
and  lower  border  of  the  neck,  while  the  middle  and  hindquarters  are 
smooth;  but  some  fine- wool  sheep  present  a  very  wrinkled  appearance 
over  the  entire  body. 

The  head  should  be  rather  short,  medium  wide,  and  well  defined 
or  clean-cut  in  its  features.  The  muzzle  should  be  broad  and  the 
nostrils  should  be  large.  Rams  should  have  a  Roman  nose  with  more 
width  than  ewes.  The  eyes  of  both  sexes  should.be  rather  wide  apart, 
large,  and  clear,  and  have  a  quiet  expression.  The  forehead  should  be 
somewhat  prominent  and  have  a  fair  degree  of  width.  The  ears  should 
be  fine,  short,  covered  with  silky  hair,  and  actively  carried.  The  horns 
of  the  ram  should  be  placed  rather  well  apart  so  as  to  give  width  and 
strength  to  the  top  of  the  head.  At  maturity  the  horns  attain  a  strong 
development.  They  have  a  corkscrew  shape,  turning  backward  from 
the  base,  then  downward,  around  forward,  and  up,  making  about  one 
and  one-half  turns.  The  ewes  are  hornless.  Wool  covers  the  poll, 
forehead,  upper  part  of  the  face,  and  cheeks,  while  the  ears  and  lower 
part  of  the  face  are  covered  with  white  hair,  which  should  be  very  soft 
and  fine.  The  skin  about  the  nose  is  often  wrinkled.  The  head  of 
the  ram  should  be  very  masculine  as  shown  by  heavy  horns,  wide  poll, 
Roman  profile,  and  heavy  nose,  all  parts  being  well  developed  or  mas- 
sive and  the  expression  resolute.  The  ewe  should  have  a  refined  head 
and  a  feminine  expression. 

The  neck  should  be  moderately  short  and  rather  muscular.  The 
neck  and  shoulders  do  not  blend  smoothly  as  in  the  mutton  type, 
although  extreme  angularity  or  roughness  is  undesirable.  Males  should 
show  a  heavily  muscled  neck;  a  pronounced  crest  or  scrag  just  behind 
the  poll  indicates  a  strongly  sexed  animal. 

The  shoulders  should  be  well  laid  in,  and  should  be  muscular. 
The  depth  of  fleshing  is  not  great  enough  to  give  that  smoothness  of 
form  which  characterizes  a  good  mutton-type  animal.  The  tops  of  the 
shoulders  are  often  sharp  and  high,  especially  in  those  individuals 
showing  the  more  extreme  development  of  the  type;  but  a  neat,  rather 


282  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

rounded  conformation  with  a  fair  degree  of  smoothness  is  more  to  be 
desired,  especially  in  rams. 

The  breast  should  be  deep  and  have  moderate  width.  The  absence 
of  heavy  fleshing  makes  impossible  the  development  of  any  marked 
degree  of  plumpness  or  width,  yet  a  very  narrow  or  peaked  breast 
indicates  a  cramped  chest  cavity  and  lack  of  strong  constitution. 

The  chest  gets  its  capacity  from  depth  more  than  from  width. 
Extreme  narrowness  is  a  serious  fault;  the  fore-rib  should  arch  suffi- 
ciently and  carry  down  far  enough  to  provide  a  roomy  chest.  The 
fore  flank  should  be  reasonably  well  filled  out.     Every  type  of  animal 


^^^■1 

^p  ^#\j[ 

BBB^^H 

mktm 

i^wBl' Mm^pHaiSS 

^^^^WP'y\V'4'^jBl^^^^B 

H^^v^'''  Wm 

'^^9H| 

Fig.  102.— Class  B  Merino  ram. 

needs  a  robust  constitution,  one  of  the  best  evidences  of  which  is  a 
large  heart-girth,  proper  allowance  being  made,  when  judging,  for  the 
thickness  of  fleshing  which  covers  the  forequarters. 

The  front  legs  are  often  very  crooked  at  the  knees,  too  close  to- 
gether, and  too  long.  They  should  be  reasonably  straight,  moderately 
wide  apart,  and  fairly  short.  The  feet  are  often  poorly  formed  and 
rather  weak,  whereas  they  should  be  well  developed  and  strong.  The 
shanks  should  be  reasonably  fine  and  rather  short,  and  the  pasterns 
should  be  free  from  weakness. 

The  back  and  loin  vary  somewhat  according  to  the  ideals  of 
breeders.     In  the  very  wrinkly  Merinos  in  which  the  mutton  qualities 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  283 

are  ignored,  the  top  is  noticeably  long  and  narrow,  and  this  may  be 
carried  to  an  undesirable  extreme.  In  the  Delaine  Merino  and  Ram- 
bouillet,  the  back  is  proportionately  shorter  and  wider.  In  any  case 
the  top  should  be  straight  from  shoulders  to  hips,  showing  a  fair  degree 
of  width  of  back  and  a  rather  wide,  strongly  muscled  loin. 

The  ribs  should  be  fairly  well  arched  and  should  show  good  length 
in  order  to  provide  proper  feeding,  breeding,  and  chest  capacity.  The 
middle  is  not  very  compact,  but  is  moderately  long. 

The  hips  are  somewhat  prominent  on  account  of  their  width  and 
the  lack  of  deep  fleshing  throughout,  but  ragged  hips  are  undesirable. 
Much  smoothness  cannot  be  expected  in  a  Merino,  yet  a  rather  neat, 
tidy  conformation  is  demanded. 

The  rump  is  often  peaked  and  drooping,  but  the  best  form  em- 
bodies a  rump  that  is  long,  level,  and  medium  wide. 

The  thighs  and  twist  vary  with  respect  to  the  class  of  fine-wool 
sheep  under  consideration.  Generally  speaking,  the  thigh  should  be 
medium  thick,  and  the  muscling  between  the  legs  should  be  sufficient 
to  afford  at  least  a  moderate  development  of  the  twist. 

The  hind  legs  should  be  straight,  medium  long,  reasonably  fine, 
strong  in  pastern,  and  placed  somewhat  apart.  A  large  percentage  of 
Merino  sheep  have  crooked  hind  legs,  the  hocks  being  close  together 
and  the  feet  too  wide  apart,  or  the  hocks  much  bent  so  as  to  place  the 
hind  feet  too  far  under  the  body,  instead  of  carrying  straight  downward 
from  hock  to  ground.     The  feet  should  be  well  formed  and  strong. 

The  skin  should  have  a  bright  pink  color,  indicating  health.  Fine- 
wool  sheep  usually  show  an  excellent  color  of  skin  superior  to  the 
mutton  type.  As  already  mentioned,  the  skin  is  more  or  less  folded 
or  wrinkled.  The  Merino  has  not  only  a  thinner  skin  than  the  mutton 
breeds,  but  is  more  richly  furnished  with  oil  glands  and  secretes  a  great 
deal  more  yolk.  Fineness  of  skin  and  fineness  of  wool  are  correlated 
characters. 

The  quality  of  fine-wool  sheep  is  evidenced  by  fineness  of  fleece, 
fineness  of  bone,  fineness  of  hair  on  face  and  ears,  and  by  a  medium- 
sized,  clean-cut  head  with  fine  ears. 

The  style  of  the  fine- wool  type  is  usually  rather  marked.  Merinos 
have  good  carriage  of  head  and  ear  and  are  quick  and  active  in  their 
movements,  walking  rapidly  and  covering  ground  with  more  ease  and 
speed  than  the  mutton-type  sheep.  Their  greater  activity  partly  ex- 
plains their  popularity  on  western  ranges  where  Merino  blood  forms 
the  basis  of  most  flocks. 

The  fleece  of  the  Merino  has  a  very  high  degree  of  fineness,  varjnng, 
however,  in  different  flocks  and  in  different  individuals.  The  skin  has 
many  more  fibers  to  the  square  inch  than  any  of  the  mutton  breeds; 


284 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


in  other  words,  the  fleece  is  ordinarily  very  compact  and  dense.  Den- 
sity and  fineness  are  outstanding  features  in  a  good  fine-wool  fleece, 
the  crimp  being  very  fine  and  regular  from  skin  to  tip  of  fiber.  The 
very  finest  woolen  fabrics  are  made  from  this  wool.  A  third  striking 
feature  of  the  Merino  fleece  as  compared  with  mutton  sheep  is  the 
large  amount  of  oil  or  yolk  it  contains.  This  gives  a  generous  coating 
to  each  fiber  so  as  to  preserve  its  soundness  and  pliancy.  Merino  wool 
commonly  undergoes  a  shrinkage  of  65  per  cent  in  scouring,  and  this 
figure  is  not  infrequently  exceeded.  When  the  secretion  of  yolk  is 
very  excessive,  the  fleece  is  made  subject  to  criticism  and  the  wool 
buyer  makes  allowance  for  the  extra  weight  in  the  price  he  offers. 


Fig. 


103. — Class  C  Merino  ram. 


The  wool  should  cover  the  head  in  the  fashion  already  described, 
only  the  nose  and  ears  being  bare.  The  fleece  should  cover  all  of  the 
body  and  extend  down  the  legs  to  the  feet.  The  belly  and  under  parts 
vary  a  great  deal  in  the  covering  of  wool.  It  is  important  that  the 
belly  be  well  wooled,  and  that  the  natural  bareness  occurring  at  the 
armpits  be  as  limited  in  area  as  possible.  The  scrotum  of  the  ram 
should  be  covered  with  wool.  The  wool  on  the  under  parts  of  the 
animal  should  be  as  nearly  like  the  rest  of  the  fleece  in  density  and 
length  as  possible.  The  length  of  fiber  in  a  year's  growth  of  fleece 
should  he  2)4  inches  or  over.  A  good  Merino  flock  should  average  11 
to  15  pounds  of  wool. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


285 


Classification  of  fine-wool  sheep. — Breeders  of  fine-wool  sheep  and 
the  larger  sheep  shows  group  or  classify  American  Merinos  into  three 
classes  or  sub-types,  known  respectively  as  A,  B,  and  C.  As  already 
pointed  out,  breeders  of  Merinos  have  differed  in  their  ideals  for  a 
number  of  years,  and  this  has  resulted  in  three  fairly  well-defined 
classes.  The  classification  is  based  chiefly  on  the  character  of  the  fleece, 
the  number  and  position  of  the  folds  or  wi'inkles,  the  size  and  weight 
of  the  animal,  and  the  development  of  mutton  qualities. 

Class  A. — These  are  the  smallest  and  most  wrinkly  of  the  three 
classes,  and  have  the  finest,  densest,  and  heaviest  fleeces,  the  shortest 


liiiiiH 


&^ 


Fig.  104. — Class  B  Merino  ewe. 


wool,  the  most  yolk,  the  poorest  mutton  qualities,  and  the  poorest 
form.  Rams  weigh  about  140  pounds,  fleece  off;  and  ewes  about  100 
pounds.  There  are  heavy  folds  all  over  the  sheep,  except  over  the 
back.  A  good  ram  should  shear  close  to  30  pounds,  and  a  ewe  about 
20  pounds.  These  weights  for  fleeces  represent  high  standards.  The 
length  of  fiber  is  from  1}^  to  23/^  inches.  The  wool  shrinks  about  70 
per  cent  on  the  average  when  scoured.  The  form  of  the  A  Merino  is 
most  narrow,  rangy,  leggy,  and  irregular  in  lines  of  the  three  classes, 
and  mutton  qualities  are  practically  wanting.  It  is  entirely  a  wool 
proposition,  with  weight  of  fleece  esteemed  above  everything  else.    The 


286 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


wrinkly  skin  results  in  considerable  variation  between  the  wool  on  top 
of  the  wrinkles  and  that  between.  The  wool  on  the  tops  of  the  wrinkles, 
being  opened  out  and  more  exposed,  is  much  less  oily,  considerably 
coarser,  and  slightly  shorter. 

Class  B. — This  class  is  wrinkled  on  the  neck,  breast,  flanks,  and 
about  the  dock.  It  has  better  mutton  qualities  and  better  form  than 
A.  Rams  weigh  150  to  175  pounds;  ewes,  100  to  115  pounds,  fleece 
off.  Strictly  good  rams  of  this  class  should  shear  25  pounds,  and  ewes 
15  pounds.     The  fiber  measures  from  23/2  to  3  inches,  and  the  wool 


Fig.  105. — Rambouillet  ewe. 


shrinks  about  65  per  cent.     It  sells  at  a  somewhat  higher  price  per 
pound  than  the  wool  of  A. 

Class  C. — This  is  also  called  the  Delaine  class.  These  sheep  are 
free  from  folds,  unless  to  a  slight  extent  on  the  neck  and  breast.  The 
head,  legs,  and  body  are  not  so  well  wooled  as  A  and  B.  It  is  the 
largest  of  the  three  classes,  has  the  best  form,  being  more  blocky  and 
low  set,  and  has  the  best  mutton  qualities.  It  is  a  creditable  meat 
producer,  but  not  equal  to  the  mutton  breeds.  The  ram  should  weigh 
about  175  pounds,  and  the  ewe  about  125  pounds,  fleece  off.  Rams 
should  shear  18  pounds,  ewes  11  pounds.     The  fleece  has  less  crimp 


Types  and  Maricet  Classes  of  Live  Stock  287 

and  fineness  and  less  density  than  the  fleece  of  A  or  B,  but  is  longer, 
measuring  from  3  to  4  inches.  The  wool  shrinks  about  60  per  cent, 
and  sells  at  a  somewhat  higher  price  per  pound  than  B. 

The  Rambouillet  breed,  developed  in  France,  excels  all  other 
Merinos  in  size,  constitution,  and  mutton  qualities.  The  ram  should 
weigh  185  pounds  or  over,  and  the  ewe  155  pounds  or  over.  Some  of 
them  are  very  large,  rams  weighing  up  to  300  pounds  and  over,  and 
ewes  up  to  250  pounds.  They  have  strong  frames,  heavier  bone  than 
the  American  Merinos,  considerable  length  of  leg,  and  the  top  line  is 
usually  straighter  than  the  American  Merino.  The  head  has  a  bold 
appearance,  is  carried  higher,  and  has  a  more  complete  covering  of 
wool.  The  Rambouillet  has  a  smooth  body  with  only  a  few  large 
folds  over  the  breast,  and  possibly  a  few  light  folds  at  the  flanks  and 
dock.  Rams  should  shear  from  15  to  20  pounds,  and  ewes  10  to  12 
pounds.  These  figures  are  surpassed  by  the  very  best  of  the  breed. 
The  weight  of  fleece  averages  less  than  that  of  the  American  Merino, 
rrainly  because  of  less  oil  or  yolk.  The  length  of  fiber  should  be  from 
23/2  to  3  inches,  although  much  of  it  falls  short  of  this  length.  The 
wool  has  great  fineness,  but  not  quite  equal  to  that  of  the  American 
Merino. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
WOOLS  AND  WOOL  GROWING 

No  animal  has  a  covering  entirely  of  wool;  even  sheep  have  hair 
upon  the  face  and  lower  parts  of  the  legs.  Wool  ranks  next  to  cotton 
as  a  source  of  textile  fabrics,  the  temperate  regions  universally  using 
woolen  products.  The  per  capita  consumption  of  wool  has  increased 
very  greatly.  It  was  about  3  pounds  in  early  times  in  the  United 
States  when  all  spinning  and  weaving  was  done  in  the  home;  in  1850 
it  was  4  pounds;  it  is  now  about  63^  pounds.  No  other  people  use  as 
much  wool  as  do  Americans,  nor  as  much  cotton.  The  world's  clip  of 
wool  averages  about  2  pounds  for  each  person. 

As  a  rule,  sheep  are  shorn  only  once  a  year.  The  coming  of  mild 
weather  in  the  spring  marks  the  time  of  shearing.  Both  hand  and 
machine  shearing  are  practiced,  preferably  the  latter.  As  the  wool  is 
sheared  off  it  is  usually  kept  in  one  piece  so  far  as  possible,  and  as  soon 


Fig.  106. — Wool  fiber  highly  magnified.  This  drawing  shows  the  scaly  surface 
of  the  wool  fiber;  the  tips  of  the  overlapping  scales  project  outward  and  point  toward 
the  tip  of  the  fiber. 

as  the  fleece  is  removed  it  is  spread  out,  with  the  flesh  or  cut  side  down, 
any  loose  pieces  are  thrown  into  the  center,  and  the  fleece  is  then  rolled 
up  with  the  flesh  side  out  and  is  tied  with  twine.  Prior  to  shipment 
the  fleeces  are  packed  in  large  sacks,  in  which  condition  they  arrive  at 
the  various  wool  markets  of  the  country. 

Growth  and  structure. — Wool  is  modified  hair.  The  term  hair  is 
ordinarily  used  to  designate  a  smooth,  straight  fiber  or  filament  like 
horse  hair.  Wool  differs  from  hair  in  being  more  or  less  crimped  and 
in  having  a  much  more  serrated  or  ridged  surface.  The  surface  of 
the  fiber  is  composed  of  a  single  layer  of  irregular,  overlapping  scales, 
apparent  only  under  the  microscope,  forming  the  wool  cuticle,  there 
being  from  1,200  to  3,000  exposed  points  of  these  scales  to  an  inch. 
The  scales  open  or  point  toward  the  tip  of  the  fiber,  like  shingles  put 
on  the  wrong  way.  Beneath  the  covering  of  scales  is  the  cortex  or 
body  of  the  fiber,  made  up  of  greatly  elongated  cells  united  into  bundles, 

288 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  28d 

and  in  the  center  of  the  fiber  there  is  sometimes  a  cavity  or  canal 
which  may  contain  granules  of  pigment. 

Hair  and  wool  are  very  similar  in  growth  and  structure,  but  wool 
is  crimped,  has  more  scales,  the  points  of  the  scales  are  more  open  or 
projecting,  and  the  entire  fiber  is  more  soft  and  flexible  than  hair. 
These  small  differences  give  to  wool  its  special  commercial  values. 
Hair  will  not  retain  the  twisted  state  given  to  it  in  spinning,  but  the 
crimp  of  wool  causes  the  fibers  to  become  entangled,  and  the  minute 
scales  hook  together  and  hold  the  fibers  in  position  when  wool  is  spun 
into  yarn.  Thus  wool  has  a  thread-forming  quality  which  hair  has 
not,  preventing  slipping  and  separation  of  the  fibers  in  the  yarn.     The 


Fig.  107. — Cross-section  of  a  wool  fiber,  a,  Central  canal,  which  is  not  present 
in  most  wools;  b,  cortex  or  body  of  fiber,  composed  of  long,  spindle-shaped  cells  which 
here  appear  oval  because  they  are  cut  transversely;  c,  wool  cuticle,  composed  of  scales. 

entanglement  and  locking  of  the  fibers  is  referred  to  as  the  "felting 
quality"  of  wool. 

In  Merino  wool,  the  scales  or  projections  are  very  distinct  and 
sharply  pointed.  In  the  medium- wool  breeds,  the  scales  are  less  dis- 
tinct and  sharp,  and  in  the  long-wool  breeds,  they  are  rounded  off  and 
indistinct.  In  Merino  wool,  about  2,400  of  these  scale-ends  are  found 
to  the  inch;  in  the  Southdown  there  are  2,000  to  2,080;  and  in  the 
Leicester,  1,850  to  1,860.  Merino  wool  is  superior  in  felting  quality, 
the  others  standing  in  a  relation  proportional  to  the  figures  given. 

Fineness  of  fiber. — Dr.  William  McMurtrie,  who  conducted  exten- 
sive investigations  of  wools  for  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  > 

^U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Rpt.,  Examination  of  Wools  and  Other  Animal  Fibers. 


290  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

found  the  average  diameter  of  the  Merino  fiber  to  be  1  /1, 194  of  an  inch, 
while  the  Southdown  had  an  average  diameter  of  1  /865,  the  Hampshire 
Down  1/769,  the  Lincoln  1/685,  the  Leicester  1/654,  the  Cotswold 
1  /605,  and  the  Oxford  Down  1  /581.  In  1860,  American  Merino  fibers 
with  a  diameter  of  1  /1, 572,  and  American  Saxon  Merino  fibers  measur- 
ing 1/1,875  of  an  inch  in  diameter  were  exhibited  in  London,  showing 
the  extreme  fineness  which  may  be  secured  in  wools. 

Secretion  and  composition  of  yolk. — Opening  into  each  wool 
follicle  are  a  couple  of  sebaceous  or  oil  glands,  furnishing  a  profuse 
secretion  of  an  oily  or  fatty  material,  called  the  yolk,  which  is  thrown 
out  at  the  same  time  the  fiber  is  formed.  This  secretion  consists  largely 
of  a  soapy  matter  having  a  potassium  base,  together  with  an  animal 
oil  which  gives  to  the  yolk  its  peculiar  odor.  Yolk,  then,  is  not  strictly 
a  grease  or  oil,  but  is  a  soap  with  an  excess  of  oil.  This  explains  why 
it  dissolves  freely  in  warm  water  and  may  be  washed  almost  entirely 
out  of  the  fleece,  and  why  it  cleanses  and  whitens  the  hands  as  soap 
does.  The  quantity  and  fluidity  of  the  yolk  vary  greatly,  being  greater 
when  the  sheep  are  healthy  and  well  fed,  and  varying  also  according 
to  the  breed.  The  yolk  maintains  the  softness  and  pliancy  of  the 
fibers,  and  protects  the  scaly  surface  from  injury  such  as  might  result 
from  friction  of  the  fibers  against  one  another  during  the  movements 
of  the  animal.  It  also  helps  to  keep  the  fleece  clean  and  free  from  a 
cotted  or  matted  condition.  The  wool  manufacturer  removes  the 
grease  from  wool  by  the  scouring  process.  This  is  the  first  step  in 
wool  manufacture. 

Woolens  and  worsteds. — When  scoured  wool  is  combed,  that  is, 
drawn  through  metal  teeth,  the  fibers  are  made  to  lie  parallel  to  each 
other  and  foreign  matter  and  short  fibers  are  combed  out.  This  waste 
is  called  the  "noils,"  and  the  remaining  long  fibers  are  called  the  "top." 
Wool  used  for  combing  under  the  Bradford  or  English  system  of  manu- 
facture must  be  strong  and  at  least  23/^  inches  long  in  order  to  give  the 
yam  sufficient  strength.  Such  wool  is  called  combing  wool.  The  yam 
made  from  combed  wool  (top)  is  called  worsted,  and  the  cloths  made 
of  it  are  known  as  worsteds. 

Wools  which  are  short  and  much  crimped  and  serratured  are 
called  clothing  or  carding  wools.  They  have  a  high  felting  quality.  In 
preparation  for  spinning  they  are  put  through  carding  machines  which 
jumble  the  fibers  together  in  any  and  every  direction,  forming  a  mixed 
mass  from  which  the  yarn  is  eventually  drawn.  The  cloths  made 
from  such  yarn  are  known  as  woolens. 

The  difference  between  woolens  and  worsteds  is  largely  due  to  the 
way  the  yarn  for  each  is  spun.  In  worsted  yarn  the  fibers  are  arranged 
as  parallel  as  possible  by  the  combing  process;  in  woolen  yam  they 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  291 

are  crossed  in  every  direction  so  as  to  assist  the  felting  or  milling  of 
the  cloth.  Yarn  for  woolen  cloth  is  very  slightly  twisted,  so  as  to  leave 
the  fibers  as  free  as  possible  for  the  felting  process;  worsted  yarn,  on 
the  contrary,  is  hard  spun  and  made  into  a  much  stronger  thread. 
By  the  process  of  manufacture,  woolens  are  felted  so  as  to  leave  little 
or  no  appearance  of  the  thread,  while  in  worsteds  the  threads  are  plainly 
evident.  Woolens  usually  have  a  fuzzy,  downy  surface,  while  worsteds 
have  a  smooth,  hard  finish.  Worsteds  hold  their  shape  better  than 
woolens.  Worsted  cloths  have  a  more  clearly  defined  pattern  and 
more  firmly  woven  appearance  than  woolens.  Woolen  cloths  are  softer 
and  the  various  colors  are  not  so  distinct  in  the  cloth.  ^  The  principal 
worsted  cloth  is  Serge,  while  woolens  include  several  leading  varieties 
such  as  Tweeds,  Cheviots,  and  Broadcloths.  The  manufacture  of 
woolen  underwear  is  also  essentially  a  woolen  process. 

Shoddy,  obtained  by  tearing  up  woolen  rags  by  machinery,  now 
enters  into  the  composition  of  all  except  the  very  finest  woolen  yarns. 


Fig.  108. — Woolen  and  worsted  yarns.  In  the  woolen  yarn  (upper)  the  short 
wool  fibers  are  crossed  in  every  direction,  while  in  the  worsted  yarn  (lower)  the  fibers 
are  longer  and  are  laid  parallel  to  each  other. 

but  cannot  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  worsted  yarn  under  the 
Bradford  or  English  system.  However,  a  varying  proportion  of  cotton 
threads  are  often  woven  into  worsted  cloth. 

Worsteds  may  be  dyed  in  the  top,  the  yarn,  or  the  cloth.  Woolens 
may  be  dyed  in  the  wool,  the  yam,  or  the  cloth. 

Pounds  of  wool  per  pound  of  cloth. — For  woolen  goods,  from  3  to 
4.64  pounds  of  grease  wool,  with  an  average  of  3.73  pounds,  are  re- 
quired to  make  1  pound  of  cloth.  The  average  amount  of  scoured 
wool  required  is  1.37  pounds.  For  worsted  cloths,  from  2.56  pounds 
to  4.55  pounds  of  grease  wool  are  required,  with  an  average  of  3.66 
pounds.  The  average  amount  of  scoured  wool  for  1  pound  of  worsted 
cloth  is  1.55  pounds.  ^ 


1  Men's  suits  are  usually  made  from  worsted  cloth,  except  that  the  under  part 
of  the  collar  is  lined  with  woolen  cloth.  This  is  mentioned  so  that  the  reader,  at 
least  the  male  reader,  may  readily  find  samples  of  the  two  classes  of  fabrics  in  order 
to  note  the  distinctions  mentioned  above. 

2F.  R.  Marshall  and  L.  L.  Heller:  The  Woolgrower  and  the  Wool  Trade,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206,  p.  24. 


292  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Classification  of  wools. — Wools  may  be  classified  according  to 
their  origin  and  also  according  to  their  value  and  adaptability  for  differ- 
ent uses.  The  classifications  in  common  use  in  this  country  are  as 
follows: 

Clipped  wools  and  pulled  wools. — The  first  distinction  made  in 
wools  is  to  divide  them  into  fleece  or  clipped  wools  and  pulled  wools. 
The  former  are  the  ordinary  clipped  wools  coming  to  market  in  separate 
fleeces.  These  are  the  more  valuable  and  constitute  by  far  the  greater 
portion  of  the  wool  of  commerce.  Pulled  wools  are  those  derived  from 
the  pelts  of  slaughtered  sheep  in  the  manner  described  later  on.  They 
are  marketed  in  500-pound  bales.  Pulled  wools  constitute  about  one- 
seventh  of  all  the  wool  produced  in  the  United  States. 

Domestic,  territory,  and  carpet  wools. — Domestic  wools  are  wools 
coming  from  the  small  farm  flocks  east  of  the  Missouri  river.  For  the 
most  part,  the  sheep  are  of  mutton  type  and  breeding.  As  compared 
to  territory  wools,  these  wools  are  usually  clean  and  bright,  due  to  the 
better  protection  and  care  given  the  sheep.  Territory  wools  are  those 
produced  west  of  the  Missouri  river,  and  they  derive  their  name  from 
the  fact  that  this  section  was  formerly  made  up  of  Territories  in  distinc- 
tion to  the  States  of  the  central  and  eastern  sections.  Territory  wools 
are  produced  by  the  large  flocks  of  range  sheep  which  contain  much 
fine-wool  breeding,  though  the  use  of  medium-  and  long-wool  mutton 
rams  is  increasing.  They  shrink  from  63  to  70  per  cent  on  the  average 
when  scoured,  and  sometimes  over  80  per  cent,  due  to  the  presence  in 
fleeces  of  sand,  dirt,  and  considerable  yolk.  Carpet  wools  are  inferior 
and  low-priced  wools  containing  much  kemp  or  dead  fibers,  and  are 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets  and  coarse  blankets.  Very  little 
carpet  wool  is  produced  in  this  country. 

Domestic  wools  may  be  subdivided  into  two  groups  or  sub-classes, 
known  as  "bright"  and  "semi-bright,"  depending  on  the  whiteness  and 
luster  of  the  fiber.  Bright  wool  is  produced  by  Ohio,  Pennsylvania, 
New  York,  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota.  Semi-bright  wool  comes  from  the  Dakotas, 
western  Kansas,  and  Nebraska.  They  are  midway  between  the  bright 
and  the  territory  in  condition,  having  more  sand  and  dirt  than  the 
bright  but  not  as  much  as  the  territory.  The  best  bright  wools  are 
those  known  as  "Ohio"  wools,  produced  not  only  in  Ohio  but  also  in 
Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia.  More  than  half  of  the  flocks  of  this 
region  are  of  Merino  breeding.  Ohio  wool  is  famous  for  strength, 
cleanliness,  and  general  quality,  and  commands  a  premium  on  the 
market. 

The  states  which  produce  territory  wool  are  Montana,  Wyoming, 
Idaho,  Utah,  Nevada,  Colorado,  and  Washington,     These  are  mainly 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


293 


range  states.  vSand  storms  deposit  much  sand  and  dirt  in  the  fleeces. 
When  the  range  is  bare  of  snow  in  winter  the  wool  often  shrinks  5  per 
cent  more  than  when  the  ground  has  been  covered.  Because  of  the 
varying  shrinkage  of  territory  wools,  they  are  sold  on  the  market  upon 
a  clean  or  scoured  basis. 

The  clips  of  California,  Oregon,  Texas,  Arizona,  and  New  Mexico 
are  no  longer  classed  as  territory  wools  due  to  the  fact  that  they  have 
rather  distinct  characteristics.  In  Texas,  shearing  is  often  practiced 
twice  a  year,  in  which  case  the  wool  comes  to  market  untied.  In 
California,  the  northern  counties  shear  once  a  vear,  but  the  middle 


Fig.  109. — Clothing  and  combing  wools. 

and  southern  counties  often  shear  twice  a  year,  the  wool  shrinks  more 
than  that  of  the  northern  counties,  and  it  comes  to  market  untied. 
Oregon  produces  some  excellent  wool,  though  somewhat  high  in  shrink- 
age. This  state  also  produces  what  are  known  as  "valley  wools,"  largely 
from  long-wool  sheep.  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  wools  are  very  uneven 
in  character  and  often  kempy,  due  to  lack  of  care  of  the  sheep  and 
inferior  breeding.  They  come  to  market  untied  and  are  poorly  put  up. 
Washed,  unmerchantable,  and  unwashed. — Formerly  the  practice 
of  washing  sheep  just  prior  to  shearing  was  extensively  followed  in  the 
eastern  states.  This  gave  rise  to  the  terms  of  washed,  unmerchantable, 
and  unwashed.     Unmerchantable  wool  is  not  unsaleable  wool,  but  that 


294 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


which  has  been  poorly  washed.  Fleeces  may  be  unmerchantable  for 
other  reasons.  The  practice  of  washing  is  almost  a  thing  of  the  past, 
and  the  use  of  these  terms  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  the  washing 
operation  has  actually  taken  place,  but  sometimes  refers  solely  to 
shrinkage.  Washed  wools  are  lighter  in  color  and  condition,  shrinking 
3  or  4  per  cent  less  than  unmerchantable,  and  the  latter  shrinks  about 
3  or  4  per  cent  less  than  the  unwashed. 

Market  classes  and  grades  of  wool. — Most  American-grown  wool 
is  sacked  just  as  the  fleeces  come  from  the  sheep  and  sold  at  home  to 
dealers.  Before  offering  the  wool  to  the  manufacturer  the  dealer  opens 
the  sacks  and  makes  up  from  his  various  purchases  a  number  of  piles, 
each  containing  only  fleeces  of  similar  character  and  value.  This  is 
called  grading,  and  it  is  performed  without  untying  the  fleeces. 

The  first  division  which  the  market  makes  in  wools  is  to  divide 
them  into  the  Domestic  and  Territory  classes.  The  advantages  of 
domestic  over  territory  wool  have  been  mentioned.  Each  of  these  is 
again  divided  into  the  Combing  and  Clothing  classes.  Combing  wool 
is  usually  worth  about  10  per  cent  more  than  the  short  or  clothing 
wool,  and  the  aim  of  the  wool-grower  is  to  produce  combing  wool. 
Each  class  is  divided  into  grades,  and  in  grading  fleeces  the  main  factor 
is  fineness  of  fiber,  although  other  factors  such  as  length,  shrinkage, 
and  general  character  are  considered.  The  various  grades  are  adapted 
to  the  manufacture  of  different  kinds  of  fabrics.  Thus  the  wool  dealer 
is  enabled  to  supply  the  manufacturer  not  merely  a  certain  general 
class  such  as  combing  wool  or  clothing  wool,  but  a  particular  kind  or 
grade  of  fleeces  within  that  class  specially  adapted  to  his  mill.  The 
complete  classification  may  be  represented  in  outline  as  follows: 


Delaine 


Combing  wools 

Fine       1 
Medium/ 

Half-blood 

Three-eighths-blood 

Quarter-blood 

Low  quarter-blood 

Braid 


Combing  wools 

Fine  staple  "I 

Fine  medium  staple] 


Half-blood  staple 
Three-eighths-blood  staple 
Quarter-blood  staple 
Low  quarter-blood  staple 
Coarse,  common,  low,  or 
braid 


DOMESTIC  WOOLS 

Clothing  wools 

often  one  grade  XX  and  X,  washed  or  fine  unwashed 

Half-blood  clothing 
Three-eighths-blood  clothing 
Quarter-blood  clothing 


TERRITORY  WOOLS 

Clothing  wools 

Fine  clothing  1 

Fine  medium    [-usually  one  grade 

clothing        j 
Half-blood  clothing 
Three-eighths-blood  clothing 
Quarter-blood    clothing,    or    short 

quarter-blood 
often  one  grade 


usually  one  grade 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  295 


long  without  stretching,  while  clothing  wools  are  all  under  that  length. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  much  the  same  names  are  given  to  the  grades 
within  each  class.  The  term  "staple"  as  applied  to  territory  wools 
means  the  same  as  the  term  "combing  wool." 

If  a  Merino  sheep  east  of  the  Missouri  river  grows  a  fleece  that 
measures  at  least  2^/^  inches  long  without  stretching,  it  grades  as 
Delaine  on  the  wool  market.     The  same  sheep  west  of  the  river  grows 


Fig.  110. — Grades  of  combing  wool.     Fine  combing  at  left  and  half-blood 
combing  at  right. 

a  fleece  that  grades  as  Fine  Staple  or  Fine  Medium  Staple.  The  Fine 
Staple  or  Fine  Medium  Staple  fleece  has  a  greater  shrinkage  than  the 
Delaine  fleece.  This  is  the  main  distinction  between  the  two.  When 
scoured,  the  wools  have  much  the  same  value.  The  eastern  wool  may 
be  somewhat  stronger,  but  in  a  general  way  the  wool  is  the  same  in 
both  fleeces. 

If  a  Merino  sheep  in  the  East  grows  a  fleece  less  than  23^  inches 
long,  it  grades  as  XX  or  X,  or  as  Fine  Unwashed.     Market  usage  has 


296 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


decreed  that  XX  and  X  as  grade  names  shall  be  used  only  in  referring 
to  washed  clothing  wools.  XX  is  a  somewhat  finer  wool  than  X. 
Fine  Unwashed  corresponds  to  XX  and  X,  but  shrinks  more  in  scour- 
ing. The  same  sheep  in  the  West  grows  a  fleece  that  grades  as  Fine 
Clothing  or  Fine  Medium  Clothing.  Fine  Clothing  corresponds  to 
XX,  and  Fine  Medium  Clothing  corresponds  to  X,  except  that  the 
territory  wool  shrinks  more  than  the  domestic. 


Fig.  111. — Grades  of  combing  wool, 
quarter-blood  combing  at  right. 


Three-eighths-blood  combing  at  left  and 


^  ^  Similar  comparisons  might  be  made  for  the  half-blood  grade,  the 
three-eighths-blood  grade,  etc.  If  we  substitute  the  general  term 
"Fine"  for  all  the  grades  thus  far  discussed,  we  may  say  that  each 
class  of  wool  has  the  following  grades: 


1.  Fine 

2.  Half-blood 

3.  Three-eighths-blood 


4.  Quarter-blood 

5.  Low  quarter-blood 

6.  Low,  coarse,  common,  or  braid. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  297 

In  the  early  days  of  the  American  wool  trade,  the  half-blood, 
three-eighths-blood,  and  quarter-blood  grades  referred  supposedly  to 
wools  from  sheep  of  half,  three-eighths,  and  quarter  Merino  blood,  but 
they  have  no  such  significance  now.  Wools  grading  as  high  as  half- 
blood  can  come  from  sheep  having  no  trace  of  Merino  blood.  On  the 
other  hand,  quarter-blood  would  rarely  come  from  a  sheep  containing 
any  Merino  blood.  Low  quarter-blood  is  a  grade  lower  than  quarter- 
blood,  and  braid  is  the  lowest  grade  of  all.  It  usually  refers  to  luster 
wool  such  as  might  come  from  a  Lincoln  or  a  Cotswold  sheep.  The 
grading  of  wool  in  the  wool  houses  is  done  by  expert  graders  who  know 
wools  so  well  that  at  a  glance  they  can  determine  the  grade  to  which 
the  wool  belongs  and  the  kind  of  material  into  which  the  wool  will  be 
made.  Many  of  these  wool  graders  may  never  have  seen  a  sheep  in 
fleece,  neither  do  they  know  the  breeds  of  sheep  and  the  characteristic 
fleeces.  Hence,  the  wool  grade  does  not  depend  upon  the  breed  of 
sheep,  and  the  wool  from  different  individuals  of  the  same  flock  and 
breed  may  be  graded  diff"erently.  Wool,  then,  is  graded  on  the  market 
according  to  its  merit,  regardless  of  the  breeding  of  the  sheep  which 
grew  it,  although  some  of  the  names  of  the  various  grades  may  seem 
to  indicate  the  breeding  of  the  sheep. 

Half-blood  wool  approaches  fineness,  but  is  not  so  finely  crimped 
as  the  fine  grade.  It  is  also  somewhat  longer  in  its  class,  and  usually 
shrinks  less  in  its  class.  Three-eighths-blood  has  a  tendency  toward 
the  coarser  wool.  It  is  less  crimped  than  half-blood  and  less  elastic. 
It  also  shrinks  less  when  scoured  because  it  is  less  oily  as  a  rule. 
Quarter-blood  represents  the  next  step  down  the  scale  in  fineness  and 
crimp,  with  still  less  shrinkage.  It  is  longer  than  three-eighths-blood. 
Practically  all  three-eighths-blood  and  quarter-blood  wools  are  of 
combing  length.  Braid  wool  varies  from  4}/^  inches  up  to  12  or  13 
inches  in  length.  Its  name  comes  from  the  fact  that  it  is  particularly 
suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  braids.  It  is  generally  used,  however, 
in  fabrics  requiring  long  and  coarse  fibers.  For  bunting  or  flags  there 
is  no  other  wool  its  equal.  Because  of  its  length  and  coarseness  it 
does  not  appear  as  one  of  the  grades  of  clothing  wool. 

The  foregoing  statements  regarding  the  comparative  lengths  and 
shrinkages  of  the  various  grades  of  wool  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
following  table '  giving  the  most  acceptable  length  and  the  estimated 
average  shrinkage  of  each  grade  of  Montana  combing  wools: 


1  Compiled  from  National  Wool  Warehouse  and  Storage  Company's  Bulletin, 
Dec,  1915. 


Fig.  112. — Grades  of  combing  wool.     Low  quarter-blood  combing  at  right  and 
braid  wool  at  left. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  299 

Acceptable  length 
Grade  for  an  average  Shrinkage — 

grade — inches  per  cent 

Fine  and  Fine  medium 2  H  64-65 

Half-blood 23^  61-62 

Three-eighths-blood 3}4  55-57 

Quarter-blood 4  51-53 

Braid 4^-13  46-48 

Classes  and  grades  of  wool  from  various  breeds  of  sheep. — The 

following  list  ^  shows  in  a  general  way  how  wool  from  the  various 
breeds  would  be  likely  to  grade.  This  table  is  presented  because  it 
will  be  of  interest  and  because  it  will  assist  the  reader  who  knows  the 
fleeces  characteristic  of  some  or  all  of  the  breeds  of  sheep,  but  does  not 
know  the  characteristics  of  the  classes  and  grades  of  wool,  to  gain  a 
clearer  understanding  of  the  latter. 

Breed  Class  and  grade  of  wool  produced 

Merino  (eastern  states) Delaine,  XX,  X,  or  fine  unwashed. 

Merino  (range  states) Fine  and  fine  medium  staple  or  clothing. 

Rambouillet Fine  and  fine  medium  staple  or  clothing  and  a 

small  amount  of  half-blood. 

Southdown Half  and  three-eighths-blood  (chiefly  three- 
eighths  combing  or  clothing,  chiefly  clothing.) 

Shropshire Mainly  three-eighths-blood,  combing  or  clothing. 

Some  quarter-blood. 

Hampshire Three-eighths    and    quarter-blood     combing     or 

clothing. 

Dorset Three-eighths    and     quarter-blood     combing     or 

clothing. 

Suffolk Three-eighths-blood  combing  and  clothing. 

Cheviot Quarter-blood  combing. 

Oxford Quarter  and  low  quarter-blood  combing. 

Corriedale Three-eighths-blood  combing. 

Cotswold ] 

Lincoln [Low  quarter-blood  combing  or  braid. 

Leicester J 

Government  standards. — In  an  attempt  to  secure  greater  uniform- 
ity in  the  classing  and  grading  of  wools,  and,  if  possible,  standardize 
them,  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricultural  Economics  in  1920  formulated 
"Tentative  Wool  Grades."  During  the  past  two  years  these  grades 
have  been  tested  in  actual  practice  and  the  Bureau  is  now  taking  steps 
to  have  them  declared  official.  The  classification  tentatively  adopted 
is  very  similar  to  the  commercial  classification  which  has  been  described. 
It  includes  the  clothing  and  combing  classes,  and  also  an  intermediate 
class  known  as  "French  or  baby  combing."  These  are  shorter  wools 
than  strictly  combing  wools,  but  may  be  manufactured  into  a  cheaper 
class  of  worsted  goods  by  means  of  the  French  combing  process.  The 
respective  lengths  assigned  to  the  three  classes  are  as  follows: 

»U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206,  p.  21. 


300  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

French  or  Strictly 

Grade  Clothing  baby  combing  combing 

Fine  Under  1 J^  inches  1^  to  2      inches  Over  2      inches 

1-2  Blood  Under  1  j|  inches  1 3^  to  2  J<  inches  Over  2^  inches 

3-8  Blood  Under  1 H  inches  1 J^  to  2  J-^  inches  Over  2H  inches 

1-4  Blood  Under  IM  inches  13/2  to  2^  inches  Over  23^  inches 

Low  1-4  Blood  Under  2      inches  2      to  3      inches  Over  3      inches 

The  complete  classification  is  as  follows: 

Grade  and  class  Grade  and  class 

Fine  clothing  1-4  blood  clothing 

Fine  French  combing  1-4  blood  baby  combing 

Fine  strictly  combing  1-4  blood  strictly  combing 

1-2  blood  clothing  Low  1-4  blood  clothing 

1-2  blood  French  combing  Low  1-4  blood  baby  combing 

1-2  blood  strictly  combing  Low  1-4  blood  strictly  combing 

3-8  blood  clothing  Common 

3-8  blood  baby  combing  Braid 

3-8  blood  strictly  combing 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  separate  classes  are  provided  for 
fleeces  which  contain  much  foreign  material,  are  off-colored,  or  other- 
wise defective.  These  classes  are  as  follows:  Burry,  seedy,  chaffy, 
cotted,  dead,  merrin,  damaged,  black  or  colored,  pieces,  tags,  kempy, 
tied  with  sisal.  Burry,  seedy,  and  chaffy  contain  foreign  material; 
cotted  wools  are  matted ;  dead  and  merrin  are  from  dead  sheep  or  wools 
which  lack  spring  and  life.     The  other  terms  are  self-explanatory. 

Sorting  wool. — The  wool  manufacturer  buys  from  the  wool  dealer 
the  grade  of  wool  which  he  desires  and  thus  secures  fleeces  which  have 
a  certain  average  degree  of  fineness.  However,  each  fleece  varies 
more  or  less  in  fineness.  Wool  from  the  lower  thighs,  called  the 
"britch,"  is  usually  the  coarsest  part  of  the  fleece.  The  shoulder  wool 
is  best  in  strength,  quality,  and  length;  the  sides  are  next  best,  and 
quality  decreases  passing  backward  to  the  britch.  Wool  from  the 
back  is  likely  to  contain  hayseed  and  chaff.  The  belly  wool  is  finer 
than  any,  but  is  short,  frowzy,  not  so  strong,  and  lacks  character. 
A  "frowzy"  wool  is  one  that  appears  lifeless,  and  is  badly  mussed,  the 
fibers  and  locks  lying  topsy  turvy.  The  wool  from  the  head  is  short, 
coarse,  and  in  dark-faced  breeds  is  likely  to  contain  black  fibers.  A 
fleece  may  be  three-eighths-blood  or  half-blood  on  the  shoulder,  while 
the  britch  would  be  quarter-blood.  For  these  reasons,  the  wool 
manufacturer  usually  sorts  the  wool  which  he  buys.  Sorting  produces 
"regular  sorts"  and  "off  sorts."  The  former  include  the  regular  classes 
and  grades  of  wool,  and  the  latter  include  stained  and  gray,  shorts, 
fribs,  clips,  etc. 

The  stained  and  gray  sort  is  not  usually  made  unless  white  goods 
are  to  be  manufactured.  Shorts  consist  of  short  wool  such  as  grows 
about  the  face,  or  it  may  be  due  to  double  cutting  in  shearing.  Fribs 
are  short,  sweaty,  and  dungy  locks.     Clips  are  locks  so  incrusted  with 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  301 

foreign  material  that  they  cannot  be  scoured  clean,  but  must  be  clipped 
off.  Other  off  sorts  are  often  made  from  wools  of  various  sections. 
Some  of  these  are  tags,  paint  locks,  and  seedy.  Tags  are  large  dung 
locks  which  are  badly  stained  and  have  a  very  high  shrinkage.  Paint 
locks  require  clipping  off  the  painted  ends  of  the  locks.  Seedy  wool 
contains  weed  seeds,  soft  burs,  etc.  It  must  often  be  carbonized  before 
using,  as  explained  in  a  later  paragraph. 

Wool  pulling. — Wool  pulleries  may  be  divided  into  two  groups — 
those  owned  by  packers  and  forming  a  part  of  the  by-products  division 
of  packing  plants,  and  those  owned  and  operated  independent  of  pack- 
ing establishments.  The  wool  pullery  of  a  packing  plant  receives  pelts 
daily,  direct  from  the  killing  floor.  They  are  at  once  placed  in  vats  of 
cold  water,  which  takes  out  all  of  the  animal  heat  and  removes  some 
of  the  dirt  and  blood.  The  soaking  continues  from  12  to  24  hours. 
Packing  plants  not  equipped  with  pulleries  salt  their  pelts,  and  when 
a  quantity  has  accumulated  send  them  to  a  pullery.  Salted  pelts  are 
soaked  36  hours,  as  it  requires  considerable  time  to  dissolve  the  salt 
out  of  the  hide.  When  removed  from  the  vats,  the  pelts  are  given 
mechanical  treatment  in  a  scrubbing  machine  which  washes  them  in  a 
spray  of  water,  completing  the  removal  of  dirt,  and  leaving  the  fleece 
in  an  attractive,  white  condition.  The  wet  pelts  are  then  put  in  a 
centrifugal  wringer  which  throws  out  the  water  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  fleece  is  made  very  nearly  dry.  The  pelts  are  next  taken  to  a  room 
where  they  are  spread,  fleece  downward,  upon  wire  screens  and  painted 
on  the  inner  surface  with  a  thick  liquid  bearing  the  trade  name  of 
"Depilatory,"  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  sodium  sulphide  and  slaked 
lime.  Within  2  to  4  hours  after  this  treatment  the  wool  fibers  become 
loosened  and  easily  part  from  the  hide,  coming  out  by  the  roots  when 
pulled. 

Before  pulling,  however,  the  pelts  are  taken  to  large  rooms  where 
they  are  spread  out  on  the  floor,  fleece  upwards,  being  grouped  or 
classified  according  to  the  nature  of  the  fleece.  The  pelts  are  then 
taken  up  and  the  wool  pulled  by  hand.  Coincident  with  the  pulling 
the  operator  sorts  the  wool.  Furthermore,  the  pullery  keeps  each 
month's  product  by  itself,  thus  multiplying  the  assortments  by  twelve, 
and  resulting  flnally  in  over  two  hundred  kinds  of  pulled  wool,  each 
having  a  distinct  trade  name. 

Wool  pulleries  report  a  strong  demand  from  wool  manufacturers 
for  black  wool  which  is  used  to  produce  various  shades  of  natural  gray 
by  mixing  it  with  white  wool.  Black  wool  thus  sells  at  a  premium,  for 
the  supply  is  small.  Pelts  that  vary  in  color  through  various  shades 
of  gray  and  brown  are  not  in  the  class  of  black  pelts  because  the  varying 
color  makes  them  an  unknown  quantity  in  color  mixing  where  definite 


302  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

results  are  wanted.  Very  few  black  fleeces  are  uniformly  black.  They 
often  contain  white,  gray,  and  brown  fibers  mixed  with  the  black. 
This  explains  why  the  so-called  black  fleece  sells  at  a  discount,  while 
the  locks  of  black  wool  collected  by  the  wool  pullery  bring  a  premium. 

The  growth  of  wool  must  be  at  least  three-fourths  of  an  inch  before 
it  may  be  profitably  pulled.  Some  pelts  are  not  pulled,  no  matter  how 
long  the  fleece  may  be,  because  the  wool  is  not  saleable,  or  not  valuable 
enough  to  pay  for  pulling. 

Scouring. — Scouring  is  the  first  process  in  wool  manufacturing. 
The  purpose  of  the  scouring  process  is  the  removal  of  dirt  and  grease 
from  the  wool.  It  does  not  remove  paint,  burs,  seeds,  chaff,  nor  twine. 
Paint  is  clipped  from  the  wool  before  scouring.  If  the  grease  wool 
comes  to  the  scouring  plant  in  bales,  it  is  first  put  through  a  shredding 
machine  which  loosens  it.  This  machine  is  equipped  with  a  blower  for 
the  removal  of  dust,  and  a  screen  for  the  removal  of  heavy  dirt.  Scour- 
ing is  accomplished  by  passing  the  wool  through  a  series  of  four  bowls 
or  vats,  each  containing  a  different  liquor.  These  liquors  are  com- 
posed as  follows: 

Bowl  No.  1 — Mild  alkaline  solution,  preferably  potassium;  temperature  130 

degrees  Fahrenheit. 
Bowl  No.  2 — Same  alkaline  solution  as  first  bowl,  plus  soap:  should  be  a  potash 

soap;  temperature  120  degrees. 
Bowl  No.  3 — Soap  solution  only;  temperature  110  degrees. 
Bowl  No.  4 — Luke  warm  water. 

Nearly  all  the  yolk  or  grease  is  removed  from  the  wool  in  the  first 
bowl.  This  is  done  by  the  saponification  of  the  oil,  the  soap  readily 
dissolving  in  the  warm  liquid.  The  action  of  the  soap  in  the  second 
and  third  bowls  is  to  whiten  the  wool  and  give  it  "life"  which  it  loses 
in  bowl  No.  1.  After  rinsing  in  the  fourth  bowl,  the  wool  is  passed 
through  a  dryer. 

During  treatment  in  the  bowls,  automatic  rakes  keep  the  wool 
moving  slowly,  for  if  it  is  moved  rapidly  through  the  liquids  it  forms  a 
ropy  mass.  The  yolk  forms  an  emulsion  in  the  bowls  and  may  be 
recovered  by  chemical  processes.  It  is  known  as  "lanolin,"  and  is 
much  used  in  salves  and  ointments.  Clipped  wools  shrink  as  much  as 
65  per  cent  or  more  in  scouring,  while  pulled  wools  shrink  about  30 
per  cent  on  the  average  and  often  shrink  only  10  per  cent.  The 
difference  is  due  to  the  very  thorough  washing  given  to  pelts  before 
pulling. 

Carbonization. — Burs  and  much  other  vegetable  matter  cannot  be 
taken  from  wool  in  scouring.  In  the  combing  process,  by  which 
worsteds  are  made,  this  vegetable  matter  is  combed  out  with  the  noils 
(short  fibers  not  suitable  for  worsted  yarn).  It  can  be  eliminated 
from  the  noils  or  from  clothing  wools  intended  for  carding  or  woolen 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  303 

purposes  only  by  carbonization.  This  consists  in  immersing  the  wool 
in  a  dilute  sulphuric  acid  or  aluminum  chloride  solution,  and  then  dry- 
ing it  at  about  200  degrees  F.  This  chars  the  burs  and  vegetable  matter 
which  are  then  removed  by  crushing  and  dusting  with  little  or  no 
change  in  the  wool  fiber.  The  process  costs  from  13^2  to  3  cents  a 
pound  and  results  in  an  average  loss  of  about  10  per  cent  in  weight. 
Thus  we  see  why  the  manufacturer  and  the  wool  dealer  have  a  right 
to  object  to  burry  wool,  and  why  they  offer  a  much  lower  price  for  it 
than  for  clean  wool. 

Wool  clip  of  world.  ^ — Australia  and  New  Zealand  combined  pro- 
duce about  30  per  cent  of  the  world's  wool  clip,  the  United  States  10 
per  cent,  Argentina  9  per  cent,  Russian  Empire  8  per  cent,  Spain  6  per 
cent,  the  Union  of  South  Africa  6  per  cent,  the  United  Kingdom  4  per 
cent,  Turkey  in  Asia  3  per  cent,  and  all  other  countries  24  per  cent. 

American  wools  and  wool  growing. — American  sheep  are  said  to 
have  no  superior  in  constitutional  vigor  and  strength  of  wool  fiber. 
The  average  weight  of  fleece  of  American  sheep  has  shown  much  im- 
provement. In  1840  it  was  only  1.9  pounds;  in  1850  it  was  2.4  pounds; 
in  1860  it  was  2.7  pounds;  in  1870  it  was  3.5  pounds;  in  1880  it  was  4.4 
pounds;  in  1890  it  was  4.8  pounds;  in  1900  it  was  6  pounds;  in  1910  it 
was  6.7  pounds;  in  1920  it  was  7.3  pounds.  The  annual  wool  clip 
since  1840  is  shown  by  the  following  figures: 

Annual  wool  clip  of  the  United  States 

Year  Sheared  wool 

1840 35,802,114  pounds 

1850 52,516,959  pounds 

1860 60,264,913  pounds 

1870 162,000,000  pounds 

1880 232,500,000  pounds 

1890 276,000,000  pounds 

1900 288,636,621  pounds 

1910 336,896,9(  3  pounds 

1920 235,005,000  pounds 

1922 219,095,000  pounds 

According  to  the  estimates  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, 2  the  leading  states  in  1922  in  the  production  of  fleece  wool,  scoured 
basis,  were  as  follows: 

1  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers:  Annual  Wool  Review  for 
1922,  p.  255. 

2As  given  in  Annual  Wool  Review  for  1922,  p.  175. 


304  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Production  of  fleece  wool  in  leading  states  in  1922 

Average  Wool  Per  cent  Scoured 

Number  of         weight  product,  of  wool 

State  fleeces  per  fleece  raw  shrinkage  Pounds 

^  Pounds  Pounds 

1.  Wyoming 2,812,000  8.0  22,500,000  65  7,875,000 

2.  Texas 2,681,000  7.2  19,300,000  65  6,755,000 

3.  Ohio 1,837,000  7.4  13,596,000  53  6,390,000 

4.  Montana 1,927,000  8.0  15,416,000  61  6,012,000 

5.  Idaho 1,923,000  7.8  15,000,000  60  6,000,000 

6.  Utah 2,160,000  7.4  15,984,000  63  5,914,000 

7.  California 1,950,000  6.9  13,455,000  64  4,844,000 

8.  Oregon 1,732,000  7.5  12,992,000  65  4,547,000 

9.  Michigan 1,078,000  7.3  7,868,000  50  3,934,000 

10.  New  Mexico 1,600,000  6.0  9,600,000  65  3,360,000 

United  States 30,947,000        7.1  219,095,000  59           89,829,000 

Pulled  wool 42,000,000  30          29,400,000 

Total  United  States 261,095,000     119,229,000 

Total  World 2,704,047,7891   

»  Based  on  latest  available  figures  compiled  by  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers  and 
published  in  Annual  Wool  Review  for  1922,  p.  255. 

This  table  brings  out  some  important  distinctions  in  wools.  The 
figures  for  shrink  are  interesting;  the  western  states  exceed  the  eastern 
states  by  7  to  15  per  cent,  due  mostly  to  the  greater  percentage  of 
Merino  blood  in  range  flocks  and  hence  a  more  greasy  wool  with  a 
greater  shrink.  Western  wools  also  contain  more  sand  and  dirt.  The 
introduction  of  mutton  sheep  into  the  corn  belt  has  decreased  the 
average  weight  of  fleece,  but  has  improved  the  shrinkage.  The  entire 
clip  of  the  United  States  in  1922  was  estimated  to  shrink  59  per  cent. 
Wool  buyers  fix  the  price  on  a  scoured  basis,  this  being  the  fairest 
method  of  dealing  and  also  the  fairest  basis  on  which  to  compare  pro- 
duction by  states.  Wyoming  produced  the  most  fleeces  in  1922,  and 
Delaware  the  fewest.  Wyoming,  Montana,  and  Nebraska  had  the 
highest  average  weight  of  fleece,  which  was  8  pounds,  and  Georgia 
was  lowest  with  2.9  pounds.  Virginia,  with  38  per  cent,  had  the 
lowest  shrinkage,  and  Washington,  with  67  per  cent,  had  the  highest 
shrinkage. 

Imports  and  exports  of  wool. — During  the  year  1920  the  United 
States  imported  254,905,000  pounds  of  wool  valued  at  $124,399,000. 
The  average  value  per  pound  was  48.8  cents.  We  export  less  than  a 
million  pounds  of  our  wool  annually.  American  wool  growers  produce 
slightly  less  than  one-half  of  the  wool  used  by  American  wool  manufac- 
turers. Australia  is  the  largest  exporter  of  wool,  the  flgure  for  the  year 
1919  being  680,769,000  pounds;  Argentina  ranked  second  with 
339,208,000  pounds;  New  Zealand  was  third  with  274,247,000  pounds; 
South  Africa  was  fourth  with  202,039,000  pounds;  and  Uruguay  was 
fifth  with  141,330,000  pounds.  These  five  countries  furnish  over  85 
per  cent  of  the  exports  of  the  world.  The  principal  importing  and 
wool-manufacturing  countries  are  France,  Great  Britain,  United  States, 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


305 


Belgium,  and  Germany.  These  five  countries  annually  consume  over 
85  per  cent  of  the  total  imports  of  the  world. 

Principal  American  wool  markets. — The  principal  wool  markets 
in  the  United  States  are  Boston,  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  and 
New  York.  During  the  past  few  years  Boston  has  handled  nearly  75 
per  cent  of  the  total  wool  crop  of  this  country,  and  nearly  60  per  cent 
of  the  foreign  wool  shipped  into  this  country. 

Factors  that  determine  the  value  of  wool. — The  value  of  wool 
depends  upon  certain  well-established  factors,  many  of  which  have 
been  indicated  and  discussed  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs  on  wools  and 
wool  manufacture.     Following  is  a  list  of  these  factors:^ 

1.  Shrinkage. — American  wools  may  shrink  from  25  to  80  per 
cent.  The  loss  in  scouring  is  a  complete  loss  to  the  manufacturer. 
Grease  wools  are  valued  on  a  scoured  basis.  Sand,  dust,  dirt,  burs, 
and  seeds  lower  the  yield  and  affect  the  value  of  the  clean  wool.  The 
following  table  shows  the  important  part  that  shrinkage  plays  in  fixing 
prices.  At  the  top  are  various  prices  per  pound  of  clean  or  scoured 
wool.  In  the  column  to  the  left  are  various  percentages  of  shrinkage. 
By  the  use  of  this  table  we  find,  for  example,  that  if  clean  wool  is  worth 
$1.00  per  pound  and  the  shrinkage  is  65  per  cent,  the  wool  is  worth  35 
cents  in  the  grease,  whereas,  if  the  shrinkage  is  60  per  cent,  the  grease 
wool  is  worth  40  cents. 


Relative  prices  of  scoured  and  raw 

wool  at  varying 

percentages  of  s 

hrink 

age 

Price  of  clean  or  scoured  wool  (cents) 

Shrinkage 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

110 

120 

130 

140 

150 

per  cent 

cts. 

cte. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

25 

23 

30 

38 

45 

53 

60 

68 

75 

83 

90 

98 

105 

113 

30 

21 

28 

35 

42 

49 

56 

63 

70 

77 

84 

91 

98 

105 

35 

20 

26 

33 

39 

46 

52 

59 

65 

72 

78 

85 

91 

98 

40 

18 

24 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

78 

84 

90 

45 

17 

22 

28 

33 

39 

44 

50 

55 

61 

66 

72 

77 

83 

50 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

55 

14 

18 

23 

27 

32 

36 

41 

45 

50 

54 

59 

63 

68 

60 

12 

16 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

60 

65 

11 

14 

18 

21 

25 

28 

32 

35 

39 

42 

46 

49 

53 

70 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

33 

36 

39 

42 

45 

75 

8 

10 

13 

15 

18 

20 

23 

25 

28 

30 

33 

35 

38 

80 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

2.  Class  and  grade  of  the  wool. — Ordinarily  combing  wools  are 
worth  about  10  per  cent  more  than  the  short  or  clothing  wools. 

3.  Character  in  wool. — ^This  refers  to  the  color  or  whiteness  of 
the  fiber,  the  soundness,  luster,  evenness  of  distribution  of  yolk,  and 
the  degree  of  crimp  which  gives  elasticity  to  the  fiber.    A  fine  Merino 


U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206. 


306  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

fiber  may  be  easily  stretched  by  hand  30  per  cent  beyond  its  crimped 
length,  and  by  gradual  pressure  on  a  machine  fully  that  much  more. 
A  white  fiber  may  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  white  cloth,  or  may 
be  dyed  any  desired  color.  Black,  brown,  or  gray  wool  can  be  used 
only  in  dark-colored  fabrics,  and  furthermore  it  is  difficult  to  stain 
these  wools  exactly  the  same  shade  as  white  wool.  Kemp,  which  are 
hair-like  fibers,  found  mostly  on  the  thighs  of  coarse-wooled  sheep,  will 
absorb  little  dye,  if  any  at  all,  and  fleeces  containing  kemp  are  dis- 
criminated against  as  lacking  in  character.  In  kemp  the  outer  scales 
lie  so  closely  against  the  body  of  the  fiber  that  the  dye  cannot  penetrate. 
The  body  of  the  fiber  alone  absorbs  the  dye. 


Fig.  113. — Tender  wool  showing  break. 

4.  Strength  of  fiber. — Tender  spots  and  breaks  affect  the  value 
of  the  wool,  may  change  its  class  or  grade,  and  lessen  the  strength  of 
the  yarn. 

5.  Use  of  paint  for  branding  sheep. — This  lowers  the  value  of 
the  fleece,  necessitates  an  extra  sort  at  the  mill,  and  requires  that  the 
painted  ends  be  clipped  off  the  fibers  before  scouring. 

6.  Tags. — These  are  worth  about  one-third  as  much  as  good  wool. 
At  time  of  shearing  they  should  be  sacked  separately.  They  are 
objectionable  in  the  fleece  because  they  shrink  much  more  in  scouring 
than  the  rest  of  the  fleece,  and  are  liable  to  stain  the  surrounding  wool, 
especially  when  wet. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  307 

7.  Wet  wool. — In  wet  wool  the  fibers  may  be  weakened,  and 
there  is  danger  of  spontaneous  combustion.  It  may  also  cause  staining, 
especially  when  tags  are  present. 

8.  Burs. — As  has  been  pointed  out,  burs  cause  much  trouble  and 
extra  expense  in  manufacture,  and  hence  lower  the  value  of  the  fleece 
considerably. 

9.  Improper  tying. — The  fleece  should  be  tied  so  that  no  locks 
or  pieces  fall  out.  These  are  difficult  to  sort  and  buyers  object  to  them 
when  present  in  large  quantities.  The  use  of  sisal  or  binder  twine  is 
seriously  objected  to  by  dealers  and  manufacturers  because  the  fibers 
of  the  twine  shred  off  and  become  mixed  with  the  wool  and  blemish 
the  fabrics  made  from  it.  A  small,  light  twine  of  twisted  paper,  espec- 
ially intended  for  the  use  of  wool  growers,  is  now  on  the  market  and 
should  be  used  exclusively. 

10.  Buck  fleeces. — These  contain  more  grease  than  other  fleeces 
and  hence  shrink  more  in  scouring.    They  should  be  kept  separate. 

11.  Black  wool. — A  black  fleece  packed  with  white  ones  is  almost 
certain  to  contaminate  the  latter  due  to  some  of  the  black  fibers  be- 
coming mixed  in  the  white.  Black  wool  should  be  packed  separately. 
Black  fieeces  sell  at  a  discount  because  they  are  usually  not  an  even 
black,  but  contain  white,  gray,  and  brown  fibers,  often  more  of  these 
than  of  black. 

12.  Cotted  or  matted  fleeces. — It  is  necessary  to  run  these 
through  an  opener,  which  is  not  done  with  ordinary  wool. 

13.  Hand  and  machine  shearing. — Machine  shearing  results  in  a 
heavier  fleece,  longer  fibers,  and  freedom  from  second  cuts.  Machine 
shearing  may  even  result  in  changing  the  class  from  clothing  to  comb- 
ing. 

14.  Packing  wool. — Lamb,  ewe,  and  wether  fleeces  should  be 
packed  in  separate  bags  if  possible.  Lamb's  wool  is  usually  more 
valuable  because  of  lighter  shrinkage.  Sewing  bags  with  sisal  or  other 
unsuitable  twine  creates  a  bad  impression.  The  bag  should  be  sewed 
securely  with  a  stout,  hard-finished  twine  so  as  not  to  burst  open. 

Marketing  wool  properly. — Poor  methods  of  sheep  husbandry 
annually  result  in  the  loss  of  many  thousands  of  dollars  to  wool  growers. 
Neglect  of  flocks  in  winter,  filthy  conditions  of  keep,  carelessness  in 
handling,  weedy  pastures,  the  use  of  oil  paint  or  tar  to  mark  sheep, 
failure  to  separate  the  tags  when  the  sheep  are  shorn,  and  improper 
tying  of  fleeces  are  factors  which  greatly  lessen  the  returns  to  wool 
producers.  The  loss  is  large  because  of  the  presence  in  fleeces  of  seeds, 
burs,  dust,  chaff,  sand,  manure,  and  other  foreign  material,  and  be- 
cause unnecessary  quantities  of  unreasonably  large  twine  are  used,  or 
because  a  kind  of  twine  is  used  that  injures  the  cloth  made  from  the 


308  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

wool.  Sometimes  there  is  enough  twine  around  one  fleece  to  tie  a 
half-dozen  or  more  fleeces.  Even  baling  wire  has  been  used  in  some 
instances. 

The  Animal  Husbandry  Division  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  ^  suggests  the  following  rules  as  of  fundamental  importance  in 
the  improvement  of  American  wools: 

1.  Adhere  to  a  settled  policy  of  breeding  the  type  of  sheep  suit- 
able to  the  locality. 

2.  Sack  lambs',  ewes',  wethers',  and  all  buck  or  very  oily  fleeces 
separately. 

3.  Shear  all  black  sheep  at  one  time,  preferably  last,  and  put  the 
wool  in  separate  sacks. 

4.  Remove  and  sack  separately  all  tags,  and  then  allow  no  tag 
discount  upon  the  clip  as  a  whole. 

5.  Have  slatted  floors  in  the  holding  pens. 

6.  Use  a  smooth,  light,  and  hard  glazed  (preferably  paper)  twine. 

7.  Securely  knot  the  string  on  each  fleece. 

8.  Turn  sacks  wrong  side  out  and  shake  well  before  filling. 

9.  Keep  wool  dry  at  all  times. 

10.  Make  the  brands  on  the  sheep  as  small  as  possible  and  avoid 
tar  brands. 

11.  Know  the  grade  and  value  of  your  wool  and  price  it  ac- 
cordingly. 

12.  Do  not  sweat  sheep  excessively  before  shearing. 

13.  Keep  the  floor  sweepings  out  of  the  wool. 

14.  Do  not  sell  the  wool  before  it  is  grown. 

15.  When  all  these  rules  are  followed  place  your  personal  brand 
or  your  name  upon  the  bags  or  bales. 

Wool  is  purchased  from  the  producer  by  different  methods  depend- 
ing upon  the  size  of  the  clip.  Domestic  wools  are  often  sold  to  local 
wool  buyers  who  take  the  whole  clip  of  the  neighborhood  regardless  of 
quality  or  cleanliness.  Sometimes  the  country  storekeeper  buys  wool 
and  resells  to  the  traveling  buyer.  Cooperative  wool-selling  agencies 
have  been  formed  in  certain  localities,  and  the  advantages  of  these 
organizations  are  discussed  in  the  next  paragraph.  Territory  wools 
are  sold  mostly  to  buyers  representing  eastern  wool  dealers.  In  a  few 
cases  they  are  sold  to  buyers  representing  manufacturers.  The  west- 
ern wool  grower  may  also  consign  his  clip  to  a  commission  house  to 
be  stored  and  sold  for  a  certain  commission  charge. 

Cooperative  marketing  and  selling. — During  the  last  few  years  the 
cooperative  marketing  and  selling  of  wools  has  been  practiced  on  a 


U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  309 

very  extensive  scale  in  the  United  States,  and  with  highly  successful 
results.  Under  this  plan  wool  growers  pool  their  wool,  shipping  it  to 
a  central  point  where  it  is  graded  and  then  sold  direct  to  wool  manufac- 
turers. Thus  the  grower  receives  a  price  in  keeping  with  the  actual 
merit  of  his  product.  Not  only  that,  but  he  receives  the  highest  return 
for  his  wool  which  it  is  possible  to  obtain.  Cooperative  selling  is 
especially  advantageous  to  producers  of  small  lots  of  wool.  Formerly 
the  only  method  of  disposing  of  such  wool  was  to  sell  it  to  local  buyers. 
The  local  buyer  usually  offered  about  the  same  price  for  all  fleeces, 
good,  bad,  and  indifferent,  and  there  was  little  or  no  incentive  to  pro- 
duce good,  clean  fleeces,  in  fact  there  was,  under  that  plan,  something 
of  an  incentive  to  be  careless  in  growing  and  preparing  wool  for  market. 
Many  growers  permitted  fleeces  to  become  burry  and  dirty,  and  fre- 
quently an  excessive  amount  of  heavy  twine  was  used  in  tying.  Under 
the  cooperative  plan  there  is  every  incentive  to  grow  good  fleeces  and 
to  market  them  in  clean  condition.  The  producer  of  good  wool  is 
gi'eatly  benefitted  by  the  new  method  of  selling. 

State  wool  pools  or  pools  covering  a  wide  territory  are  now  made 
regularly  by  wool  growers  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Connecticut, 
New  York,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minne- 
sota, North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Texas,  Utah, 
Oregon,  and  other  states.  The  cooperative  plan  seems  to  have  first 
attracted  wide  attention  in  the  East  in  1915  when  Otsego  County,  N.  Y., 
pooled  20,000  pounds  of  wool  and  sold  it  at  an  advance  of  4}^  cents 
per  pound  over  prices  offered  by  local  dealers.  Later  a  number  of  larger 
pools  were  organized  in  the  farming  states  with  very  successful  results. 
The  West  also  has  found  cooperative  selling  to  be  highly  advantageous. 
It  is  reported  ^  that  in  Fremont  County,  Idaho,  wool  has  been  sold 
cooperatively  for  over  15  years.  The  Jericho  association  at  Fountain 
Green,  Utah,  has  handled  from  800,000  to  900,000  pounds  of  wool 
annually  for  five  or  six  years.  In  1921,  its  first  season,  the  Pacific 
Cooperative  Wool  Growers  of  western  Oregon  sold  1,500,000  pounds 
of  wool  at  a  cost  of  23^^  cents  per  pound  for  assembling,  weighing, 
classifying,  grading,  and  operating.  This  association  controls  the  wool 
of  about  250,000  sheep.  The  membership  numbers  2,100  and  is  in- 
creasing. The  wool  is  shipped  to  the  warehouse  in  Portland  where  it 
is  graded  by  United  States  licensed  graders  in  accordance  with  the 
federal  tentative  wool  standards.  It  was  found  advantageous  to  scour 
84,000  pounds  of  wool  in  1921.  The  association  is  able  to  borrow 
money  on  its  warehouse  receipts  and  to  make  advances  to  members 
up  to  60  or  70  per  cent  of  the  value  of  their  wool  in  storage.  Through 
the  sending  of  grade  reports  to  members,  the  growers  are  learning 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Agricultural  Cooperation,  Jan.  15,  1923,  p.  6. 


310  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

about  grades  of  wool,  and  the  manager  reports  improvement  in  the 
wool  received  and  in  the  manner  in  which  it  is  tied. 

R.  A.  Hammond,  manager,  states'  that  the  Ohio  Sheep  and  Wool 
Growers'  Association  handled  a  total  of  15  million  pounds  of  wool 
during  the  four  years  from  1919  to  1922  inclusive.  Practically  all  of 
this  was  consigned  by  Ohio  growers,  though  during  1921  and  1922 
about  1,500,000  pounds  were  received  from  Indiana.  In  1922  the 
Association  marketed  a  total  of  about  2,750,000  pounds,  said  to  be 
the  largest  proportion  of  the  clip  marketed  cooperatively  in  any  state. 
In  1922  the  consignors  received  an  average  of  5  cents  per  pound  more 
for  their  wool  than  prevailing  local  prices.  Storage  and  grading  facili- 
ties are  provided  in  a  large  warehouse  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  and  sales 
are  made  directly  to  manufacturing  mills,  each  grower  receiving  the 
actual  price  for  his  wools,  minus  a  handling  charge  amounting  to  2^ 
cents  per  pound.  The  wool  marketed  by  the  Association  in  1922 
graded  higher  than  that  marketed  in  1921.  This  is  the  natural  result 
of  a  correct  system  of  marketing  whereby  each  grower  is  paid  according 
to  the  merit  of  his  product.  The  old  system  penalized  quality,  put  a 
premium  on  mediocrity,  and  a  bigger  premium  on  inferiority,  and  under 
that  system  no  improvement  in  quality  of  product  could  be  expected. 
Cooperative  wool  pools  ofier  strong  encouragement  to  improve  the 
quality  and  value  of  wool.  In  addition  to  this  they  secure  for  the 
grower  the  best  possible  return  for  the  grade  of  wool  produced. 

Mohair. — This  is  the  product  of  the  Angora  goat.  The  fiber  is 
coarse,  very  long,  exceedingly  lustrous,  and  has  very  little  crimp.  It 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  braids,  felts,  linings,  and  plushes.  It  is 
also  used  extensively  as  a  substitute  for  human  hair  in  switches  and 
wigs.  Texas,  Oregon,  New  Mexico,  California,  and  Arizona  are  the 
principal  producers  of  mohair  grown  in  the  United  States.  The 
National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers  estimates  that  the  pro- 
duction of  mohair  in  the  United  States  amounted  to  7,750,000  pounds 
in  1922,  having  doubled  since  1910.  We  imported  4,246,484  pounds 
of  mohair  in  1922,  of  which  1,636,145  pounds  came  from  British  South 
Africa  and  702,091  pounds  from  Turkey  in  Europe. 


1  Information  to  the  writer. 


PART  III-SWINE 


INTRODUCTION 

The  hog  is  universally  known  as  the  "mortgage  lifter."  No  other 
animal  has  contributed  more  toward  the  success  of  farming  in  the 
United  States.  This  country  leads  the  world  in  hog  breeding  and  pork 
production.  The  money-making  ability  of  the  hog  is  based  on  the 
following  advantages  of  the  hog  and  of  hog  raising: 

1.  Hogs  are  the  most  efficient  converters  of  grain  and  certain 
other  feeds  into  meat.  They  make  larger  gains  in  weight  in  proportion 
to  feed  consumed  than  other  farm  animals. 

2.  They  are  most  prolific,  commonly  farrowing  from  6  to  10  pigs, 
and  will  raise  two  litters  per  year. 

3.  Returns  come  quickly.  The  pigs  may  be  marketed  within  ten 
months  after  the  sows  are  bred.  The  sow  may  be  bred  when  eight 
months  old,  farrowing  her  first  litter  at  twelve  months  of  age. 

4.  Of  all  meat-producing  farm  animals,  the  pig  is  best  adapted 
to  diversified  and  intensified  farming  where  a  large  income  is  desired 
from  a  small  acreage. 

5.  The  hog  has  a  higher  dressing  percentage  than  any  other 
animal,  and  a  larger  proportion  of  the  live  weight  is  edible  than  of  any 
other  animal. 

6.  Pork  is  the  most  nutritious  meat  and  has  better  curing  and 
keeping  qualities  than  any  other  meat. 

7.  No  other  animal  equals  the  hog  in  its  fat-storing  ability,  and 
hog  fat  is  the  most  valuable  fat  produced  by  domestic  animals. 

8.  Hogs  are  the  most  efficient  farm  animals  in  converting  certain 
wastes  and  by-products  into  profits.  This  statement  applies  to  grain 
wasted  by  fattening  cattle,  ^  utilization  of  garbage,  and  utilization  of 
dairy  by-products  such  as  skim  milk.  In  some  wooded  sections  of  the 
countrj%  pigs  convert  acorns,  other  mast,  and  roots  into  saleable  form. 

9.  Hog  raising  requires  a  smaller  investment  in  animals  and 
equipment  and  yields  quicker  and  relatively  larger  results  than  any 
other  branch  of  animal  husbandry. 


^W.  W.  Smith  of  Purdue  University  states  that  for  every  bushel  of  ear  or  shelled 
corn  fed  to  steers,  the  hogs  following  the  cattle  produce  an  average  of  from  one  to 
two  pounds  of  pork;  and  that  when  the  grain  is  crushed  or  ground  before  feeding  to 
cattle,  from  a  quarter  to  a  half  pound  of  pork  is  produced.  With  hogs  selling  at  10 
cents  per  pound,  a  saving  of  2}^  to  20  cents  per  bushel  of  corn  fed  to  the  cattle  is 
eflfected  by  the  hogs. — Pork  Production,  p.  4. 

311 


312  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Economy  of  the  pig  as  a  meat  producer. — W.  W.  Smith  of  Purdue 
University  states  ^  that  the  cost  of  the  pig  at  birth  is  much  less  than 
that  of  the  calf  or  lamb,  and  that  the  cost  of  subsequent  gains  is  lower. 
He  states  that  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  during  the  market-finish- 
ing period,  1,000-pound  steers  require  an  average  of  800  pounds  of 
grain  and  475  pounds  of  legume  hay;  65-pound  lambs  require  400 
pounds  of  grain  and  500  pounds  of  legume  hay;  and  200-pound  pigs 
require  450  pounds  of  grain  and  no  hay.  He  mentions  also  that  the 
brood  sow  brings  a  relatively  better  price  when  sent  to  market  after 
her  days  of  usefulness  in  the  herd  are  over  than  does  the  cow  or  the 
ewe. 

When  to  the  above  facts  it  is  added  that  during  ten  years  at  the 
Chicago  market  ^  all  hogs  marketed  there  brought  an  average  price 
of  $9.65  per  cwt.,  all  beef  steers  $8.85,  all  butcher  cows  and  heifers 
$6.35,  all  fat  lambs  $9.60,  all  yearling  wethers  $7.90,  and  all  older  sheep 
$6.70,  it  might  be  assumed  that  hogs  are  easily  the  most  profitable  of 
all  meat-producing  animals.  This  may  be  true.  But  the  above  figures 
do  not  include  heavy  losses  of  pigs  which  occur  annually,  especially 
between  farrowing  time  and  weaning  time.  A  much  larger  percentage 
of  the  pigs  born  annually  fail  to  reach  the  market  than  is  true  of  calves 
or  lambs.  The  initial  (birth)  cost  of  every  dead  pig  must  be  added  to 
the  initial  cost  of  his  surviving  litter  mates,  and  the  feed  he  consumed 
and  the  labor  he  required  must  be  added  to  the  cost  of  feeding  them 
in  order  to  determine  the  cost  of  producing  pork.  Furthermore,  the 
ability  of  steers  and  lambs  to  produce  fairly  good  carcasses  on  grass 
and  roughage  alone,  and  the  absolute  failure  of  the  pig  under  the  same 
conditions  should  be  kept  in  mind. 

Economy  of  the  pig  as  a  producer  of  human  food. — The  pig  ranks 
very  high  among  all  farm  animals  in  ability  to  manufacture  a  large 
amount  of  human  food  from  a  given  quantity  of  feed.  Dr.  W.  H. 
Jordan  of  the  New  York  (Geneva)  Experiment  Station  has  compiled 
the  following  table  ^  showing  how  the  farm  animals  compare  in  the 
economy  with  which  they  convert  their  feed  into  edible  solids.  "Edible 
solids"  means  marketable  product  minus  all  water,  bone,  and  gristle. 
Note  the  high  rank  of  the  pig: 


I  Pork  Production,  p.  7. 

2 Compiled  from  the  Drovers  Journal  Year  Books  of  Figures  covering  the  years 
1909  to  1918  inclusive. 

3  The  Feeding  of  Animals,  p.  423. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  313 

Human  food  produced  by  farm  animals  from  100  pounds  of  digestible  matter  consumed 

Marketable  Edible 

Animal  product  solids 

Pounds  Pounds 

Cow  (milk) 139.0  18.0 

Pig  (dressed) 25.0  15.6 

Cow  (cheese) 14.8  9.4 

Calf  (dressed) 36.5  8.1 

Cow  (butter) 6.4  5.4 

Poultry  (eggs) 19.6  5.1 

Poultry  (dressed) 15.6  4.2 

Lamb  (dressed) 9.6  3.2 

Steer  (dressed) 8.3  2.8 

Sheep  (dressed) 7.0  2.6 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  table  does  not  take  into 
consideration  the  relative  cost  or  value  of  the  feedstuffs  consumed  by 
the  different  animals.  Failure  to  do  so  is  especially  detrimental  to  the 
sheep,  steer,  and  lamb.  Nor  does  the  table  include  the  labor  cost  of 
producing  the  various  products.  Neither  does  it  include  in  the  case 
of  the  dairy  cow  the  feed  and  labor  required  to  grow  the  cow  or  heifer 
to  milking  age.  Nor  does  it  consider  the  relative  food  values  of  the 
edible  solids  produced  by  the  various  animals.  If  these  factors  were 
included,  the  pig  would  certainly  approach  the  milk  cow  even  more 
closely  in  economy  of  production,  and  might  equal  or  surpass  her.  We 
should  remember  that  any  fair  comparison  must  include  all  costs  and 
all  factors  in  any  way  concerned  in  economy  of  production.  Unfor- 
tunately for  the  pig  this  would  include  the  losses  caused  by  disease, 
exposure,  injuries,  and  other  causes. 

The  writer  desires  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  too  much  importance 
should  not  be  attached  to  comparisons  similar  to  the  one  made  in  the 
above  table.  Such  comparisons  are  valuable  only  in  that  they  make 
us  think  and  impress  us  with  the  special  attributes  of  different  animals. 
Each  kind  of  live  stock  has  its  proper  place  and  each  is  most  economical 
and  profitable  under  the  right  set  of  conditions.  For  most  economical 
utilization  and  conversion  of  pastures  and  farm  crops,  all  kinds  of  farm 
animals  are  essential.  And  as  one  man  remarked,  "We  cannot  live 
by  milk,  or  pork,  or  eggs,  or  beef  alone;  and  the  cow  doesn't  lay  eggs, 
and  the  steer  doesn't  give  milk,  and  the  lamb  can't  grow,  pork,  and  the 
chicken  is  no  good  for  beef;  so  why  argue  about  it?  To  which  his 
friend  replied  that  he  'guessed  that  was  so.'  Writers  on  live-stock 
subjects  often  make  comparisons  to  emphasize  particular  points. 
Readers  sometimes  make  the  mistake  of  attaching  an  importance  to 
such  comparisons,  or  of  drawing  a  conclusion  from  them,  that  is  not 
justified  or  was  not  intended  by  the  writers. 

Types  of  hogs.— Swine  are  useful  as  a  source  of  meat  and  lard. 
Some  swine  produce  meat  only,  and  some  produce  lard  as  well  as  meat. 
Differences  in  the  demands  of  consumers  of  pork,  together  with  differ- 


314  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

ences  in  the  kinds  of  feed  available  for  pork  production,  have  resulted 
in  the  establishment  of  two  distinct  types  of  swine,  lard  type  and  bacon 
type. 

The  lard  hog  is  an  American  production  found  chiefly  in  the  corn- 
belt  states  where  corn  is  the  principal  feed  for  all  farm  animals.  Corn 
is  a  great  fattening  feed,  and  when  fed  to  hogs  it  is  converted  into  fat 
from  which  lard  is  made.  Breeders  have  therefore  developed  a  type 
of  hog  specially  adapted  to  converting  feed,  principally  corn,  into  fat, 
and  at  the  same  time  growing  a  carcass  highly  valued  for  the  various 
cuts  of  meat  which  it  yields. 

The  bacon  hog  is  also  found  in  America,  principally  in  Canada, 
however,  which  is  outside  the  corn  belt.  In  Canada  the  feeds  available 
for  pork  production  are  peas,  barley,  wheat,  oats,  rye,  skim  milk,  and 
roots.  As  compared  with  corn,  these  feeds  are  not  so  fattening;  they 
are  muscle  builders,  and  hogs  produced  with  such  feeds  take  on  rela- 
tively little  fat  and  are  not  useful  as  a  source  of  lard.  Canadians  have 
made  no  effort  to  compete  with  the  hogs  of  the  corn  belt;  instead  they 
produce  a  hog  suitable  for  the  English  and  Canadian  trade — a  hog 
whose  carcass  yields  the  largest  proportion  of  high-grade  bacon. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  may  appear  that  there  is  no  real 
hereditary  difference  in  the  form,  structure,  and  ability  of  the  two  types 
of  hogs,  but  that  the  differences  between  them  are  solely  the  result  of 
differences  in  the  feeds  upon  which  they  are  produced.  This  is  largely 
true,  yet  it  is  a  fact  that  when  pigs  of  the  bacon  type  are  brought  into 
the  corn  belt  and  fed  on  fat-producing  feeds,  they  never  entirely  lose 
the  bacon  type;  and  when  the  lard  hog  is  taken  into  a  bacon-producing 
section  and  fed  on  muscle-building  feeds,  there  is  the  same  degree  of 
change,  but  the  lard  hog  does  not  lose  his  identity  under  such  a  system 
of  feeding.  Therefore  we  must  conclude  that  there  is  something  besides 
the  difference  in  the  feeds  which  accounts  for  the  two  distinct  types; 
in  other  words,  there  is  an  hereditary  difference  between  the  two  kinds 
of  swine. 

Careful  selection  and  breeding  and  the  establishment  of  definite 
types  of  animals  suitable  to  special  purposes  cannot  accomplish  the 
desired  ends  unaided.  The  feeding  and  care  must  receive  as  much 
attention  as  the  breeding.  No  matter  how  well  bred  an  animal  may 
be,  and  no  matter  how  great  may  be  its  tendency  to  conform  to  a 
given  type,  it  must  enjoy  a  favorable  environment  before  its  inherited 
good  qualities  can  fully  assert  themselves  and  thereby  enable  the  animal 
to  fulfill  its  mission. 

The  breeds  of  hogs,  their  classification  according  to  type,  and  the 
number  of  registered  purebreds  of  each  breed  in  the  United  States  as 
shown  by  the  1920  census,  are  as  follows: 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  315 

Type  Breed  Number 

fDuroc-Jersey 819,117 

I  Poland-China 726  504 

Lard  Type <[  Chester  White 191,207 

J  Hampshire 106',978 

Berkshire 86,676 

[Spotted  Poland-China 47  J03 

Bacon  Type  /Yorkshire 6,353 

liAcON  lYPE JTamworth 5!639 

All  other 59,723 » 

Total 2,049,900 

>  Includes  Mule-Foot,  Cheshire,  Essex,  Victoria,  Small  Yorkshire,  Large  Black,  Red  Berkshire 
and  other  minor  breeds.  ' 

The  Berkshire  and  Hampshire  do  not  possess  true  fat  or  lard  type, 
but  have  something  of  a  bacon  tendency.  This  is  especially  true  of 
the  Berkshire  as  bred  in  Canada. 

Definitions  of  Hog  Terms 

Boar. — Breeding  male,  any  age. 

Sow. — The  female,  any  age. 

Gilt. — A  young  sow,  usually  under  twelve  months  and  before  she 
has  farrowed  a  litter. 

Barrow. — Unsexed  male,  castrated  when  a  young  pig.  The  best 
age  to  castrate  pigs  is  from  6  to  8  weeks  old,  before  weaning. 

Stag. — Unsexed  male,  castrated  when  mature  or  so  far  advanced 
toward  maturity  that  masculinity  is  plainly  evident  in  head,  neck,  and 
forequarters.     This  constitutes  coarseness  in  a  market  animal. 

Shote. — A  young  hog  weighing  from  100  to  150  pounds. 

Show  Yard  Classification  by  Ages 

The  base  dates  for  classifying  hogs  by  ages  are  March  1  and  Sep- 
tember 1,  and  the  classes  by  ages  are  as  follows: 

Junior  pig  cZass.^Animals  are  eligible  to  this  class  that  were  far- 
rowed on  or  after  March  1  of  the  year  shown. 

Senior  pig  class. — Farrowed  on  or  after  September  1  of  the  preced- 
ing year  and  before  March  1  of  the  year  shown. 

Junior  yearling  class. —Farrowed  on  or  after  March  1  and  before 
September  1  of  the  preceding  year. 

Senior  yearling  class. —Farrowed  on  or  after  September  1  of  the 
second  preceding  year  and  before  March  1  of  the  preceding  year. 

Two  years  old  and  over  (aged)  class. — Farrowed  before  September 
1  of  the  second  preceding  year. 

For  example,  during  the  summer,  fall,  and  winter  show  season  of 
1923,  junior  pigs  are  those  farrowed  on  or  after  March  1,  1923;  senior 
pigs,  September  1, 1922-February  28,  1923;  junior  yearlings,  March  1- 


316  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

August  31,  1922;  senior  yearlings,  September  1,  1921-February  28, 
1922;  aged  animals,  before  September  1,  1921. 

Junior  champion. —Be^t  animal  under  one  year. 

Senior  champion. — Best  animal  one  year  old  or  over. 

Champion.—Best  animal  any  age. 

Grand  champion.— Best  animal  any  age  or  breed.  The  term 
"grand  champion"  is  also  frequently  applied  to  champions. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
THE  AMERICAN  OR  LARD-TYPE  HOG 

The  United  States  has  created  comparatively  few  of  the  breeds 
now  found  within  her  borders.  By  the  time  this  country  reached  that 
stage  in  her  live-stock  development  when  improvement  in  domestic 
animals  became  imperative,  European  nations  had  met  and  solved  a 
similar  problem  by  the  creation  of  numerous  useful  breeds.  It  was 
but  natural,  therefore,  that  many  of  these  foreign  breeds  were  imported 
to  this  country,  and  it  was  fortunate  indeed  that  most  of  them  proved 
fully  capable  of  fulfilling  the  requirements  of  our  stock  growers.  We 
were  thus  afforded  an  easy  short  cut  across  what  would  have  been  a 
long,  laborious  period  in  the  development  of  our  live-stock  industry. 
We  borrowed  whenever  such  procedure  was  practicable,  and  the  fact 
that  we  have  never  found  it  really  necessary  to  create  a  breed  of  draft 
or  carriage  horses,  beef,  dairy,  or  dual-purpose  cattle,  mutton  sheep, 
or  bacon  hogs  shows  how  great  is  our  indebtedness  to  the  breeders  of 
Europe. 

Our  needs  were  not  entirely  met,  however,  for  we  have  created  a 
breed  of  trotting  horses,  a  breed  of  saddle  horses,  a  breed  of  jacks,  a 
breed  of  fine-wool  sheep,  and  a  number  of  breeds  of  lard-type  swine. 
We  have  also  found  it  necessary  to  modify  slightly  some  of  the  breeds 
we  have  adopted,  and  to  our  credit  it  may  be  said  that  we  have  made 
certain  changes  in  some  of  these  adopted  breeds  which,  as  viewed  from 
the  standpoint  of  American  conditions  and  requirements,  represent 
decided  improvements.  The  Polled  Shorthorn,  the  Polled  Hereford, 
the  "American  type"  Hereford,  and  the  "American  type"  Berkshire 
are  examples  of  such  modifications. 

The  extended  patronage  which  we  have  given  to  foreign  stock  and 
the  lack  of  necessity  for  developing  breeds  of  our  own,  while  highly 
advantageous,  has  tended  to  dim  our  own  glory  as  a  live-stock  breeding 
nation.  If,  because  of  this  fact,  our  live-stock  industry  needs  a  re- 
deeming feature,  it  is  furnished  by  the  creation  of  a  distinctly  American 
type  of  hog,  which  includes  several  breeds.  European  breeds  of  swine 
proved  so  fully  incompetent  to  make  pork  under  American  conditions 
that  our  breeders  found  it  necessary  to  create  distinctly  new  breeds  of 
a  new  type,  and  this  work  has  been  so  well  done  as  to  give  us  a  clear 
title  to  the  distinction  of  leading  the  world  in  swine  breeding  and  in 
pork  production. 

317 


318  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Our  conditions  demand  a  type  of  swine  which  can  consume  a 
ration  composed  largely  of  com  and  utilize  it  to  advantage  in  the  pro- 
duction of  meat  and  lard.  This  type  of  hog  is  known  as  the  American 
or  lard-type  hog,  and  it  has  played  no  small  part  in  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  American  agriculture  and  in  the  prosperity  of  our  farmers. 
"King  Com  and  the  American  Hog"  have  constituted  an  invincible 
combination,  creating  a  channel  of  disposal  or  market  for  com,  and 
supplying  the  people  of  this  and  other  countries  with  highly  palatable 
and  nutritious  meat  at  a  moderate  price. 

Present-day  swine  breeders  and  pork  producers  are  not  unani- 
mous in  their  opinions  conceming  what  is  the  most  profitable  type  of 
lard  hog  to  produce  for  the  market.  The  writer  has  interviewed  a 
large  number  of  pork  producers,  breeders  of  purebred  hogs,  and  college 
and  experiment  station  workers  relative  to  this  matter,  and  the  con- 
census of  opinion  seems  to  be  as  follows: 

1.  A  very  compact,  wide,  low-set  pig  matures  earliest  and  fattens 
most  easily,  but  does  not  make  th6  most  rapid  or  economical  gains  and 
cannot  be  profitably  carried  beyond  a  certain  rather  low  limit  of  weight. 
Sows  of  this  type  are  not  prolific. 

2.  An  extremely  long,  narrow,  and  leggy  pig  grows  rapidly  and 
attains  large  size,  but  is  likely  to  be  lacking  in  capacity  of  middle  and 
feeding  qualities  and  is  often  difficult  to  fatten  at  market  weights  (200 
to  275  pounds).     Sows  of  this  type  are  prolific. 

3.  The  most  profitable  market  pig  is  intermediate  in  type  be- 
tween the  two  types  mentioned  above. 

4.  The  most  profitable  market  pig  is  the  product  of  a  large  sire 
and  dam  and  has  inherited  the  ability  to  grow  rapidly  and  to  make 
large  daily  gains  on  feed. 

5.  He  must  have  considerable  length  of  body. 

6.  He  must  have  at  least  medium  length  of  leg. 

7.  He  must  have  at  least  medium  size  of  bone. 

8.  He  must  have  a  good  constitution  and  good  feeding  qualities 
as  shown  by  depth  and  fullness  of  chest  and  middle. 

9.  He  must  be  smooth,  and  free  from  coarseness  in  head  and  bone. 

10.  He  must  be  active,  and  strong  in  feet,  pasterns,  and  legs. 

11.  He  must  be  strong  in  back  and  loin,  showing  a  nicely  arched 
top  line. 

12.  He  must  be  neat  in  jowl,  firm  in  fieshing,  and  free  from 
flabbiness  along  the  belly  and  in  the  lower  part  of  the  ham. 

13.  When  fattened  for  the  market  he  should  be  fairly  wide 
throughout,  indicating  a  good  finish,  but  a  very  wide  type  is  not  desir- 
able for  two  reasons:  (a)  Too  frequently  it  is  associated  with  a  short, 
low-set,  chunky,  slow-growing  type,     (b)  It  indicates  an  excessively 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


319 


fat  condition  not  favored  by  the  packer,  and  final  gains  that  are  not 
ordinarily  economical  or  profitable  to  the  producer. 

The  following  description  applies  particularly  to  the  fat  barrow 
raised  and  fattened  for  the  market.  The  type  desired  in  lard  hogs  for 
breeding  purposes  is  described  in  Chapter  XXVII. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  lard-type  hog  fattened  for  the 
market  embodies  a  long,  deep,  and  reasonably  wide  conformation,  to- 
gether with  great  smoothness.  The  legs  should  be  of  medium  length, 
so  as  to  give  a  rather  upstanding,  but  not  leggy,  appearance.  He 
should  be  tall  as  measured  from  his  back  to  the  ground,  rather  upstand- 
ing as  measured  from  his  belly  to  the  ground,  yet  deep  from  back  to 


Fig.  114.- 

—Points  of  the  hog. 

1. 

2. 

3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 

Snout 

Eye 

Ear 

Cheek 

Jowl 

Poll 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 

Neck 
Shoulder 
Fore  leg 
Pastern 
Toes 
Dew  claw 

13.  Back 

14.  Loin 

15.  Side 

16.  Belly 

17.  Fore  flank 

18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

Hind  flank 
Rump 
Ham 
Hind  leg 
Tail 

underline.  The  top  line  should  be  arched,  showing  an  even  curvature, 
from  shoulders  to  tail,  insuring  against  weakness  of  back  and  loin. 
The  highest  point  in  the  top  line  should  be  midway  between  shoulders 
and  hips,  whereas  frequently  the  highest  point  is  over  the  hips.  In 
the  latter  case  the  rump  is  usually  steep  and  drooping  and  the  hind 
legs  do  not  come  down  straight  but  are  placed  too  far  under  the  body. 
The  hips  should  have  about  the  same  height  as  the  tops  of  the  shoulders, 
and  the  rump  should  round  off  rather  gradually.  The  underline  should 
be  straight,  trim,  and  level,  insuring  against  paunchiness  and  against 


320 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


flabbiness  in  fleshing  along  the  belly.  The  flanks  should  be  well  let 
down.  The  hog  should  be  uniform  in  his  width  and  uniform  in  his 
depth,  showing  no  tendency  to  taper  in  width  and  to  be  heavy  in 
shoulders  and  light  in  hams. 

When  a  view  is  taken  directly  down  upon  the  top  of  the  hog  he 
should  show  good  width  and  marked  uniformity  of  width  throughout. 
His  top  from  shoulders  to  tail  should  be  nicely  rounded  over  from  side 
to  side  without  any  tendency  to  be  ridgy  or  peaked.  His  sides  should 
be  well  filled  out  so  that  they  are  even  with  the  shoulders  and  hams, 
indicating  good  condition  and  insuring  smoothness  and  evenness  in 
form.     He  should  be  very  smooth  in  both  form  and  fleshing,  and  should 


Fig.  115. — Excellent  type  in  the  fat  barrow.  Champion  Poland-China  barrow 
and  reserve  grand  champion  at  the  1922  International.  Bred,  fed,  and  exhibited 
by  Iowa  State  College.  Lame  at  time  photograph  was  taken,  but  he  shows  excellent 
form,  condition,  and  smoothness,  good  quality,  and  exceptionally  good  top  line,  side, 
ham,  and  pasterns.     He  stands  at  the  right  end  of  the  line  in  Fig.  119. 


show  refinement  of  head,  ear,  coat,  and  skin.  He  should  have  bone  of 
medium  size,  free  from  any  roughness  and  coarseness  and  also  free 
from  over-refinement  and  weakness.  His  legs  should  be  straight  and 
he  should  be  active  and  should  show  good  style.  The  lard  hog  is 
milder  and  more  quiet  in  disposition  than  the  bacon  hog,  but  a  sluggish, 
inactive  hog  is  objectionable.  Lard  hogs  should  be  fairly  active. 
This  makes  them  better  grazers,  insures  exercise,  and  helps  to  develop 
heart  and  lung  capacity  and  strength  of  feet  and  legs.     Too  frequently 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  321 

the  fat,  finished  pig  is  short  winded  and  is  weak  in  underpinning,  so 
that  it  becomes  a  difficult  matter  and  perhaps  impossible  to  get  him 
safely  to  market. 

The  head  is  of  medium  size,  medium  length,  broad  between  the 
eyes,  and  short  of  snout.  A  narrow  head  and  finely  pointed  snout  are 
indications  of  a  poor  feeder.  The  shape  and  length  of  head  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  breed,  but  in  none  of  the  lard  breeds  is  much  length  or 
narrowness  desirable.  The  eyes  should  be  as  large,  prominent,  and 
clear  as  possible,  a  small,  sunken  eye  obscured  by  rolls  of  fat  around 
the  socket  being  objectionable.  The  carriage  of  the  ear  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  breed,  being  erect  in  some  and  drooping  or  broken  in  others. 
In  all  the  breeds,  however,  a  fine  and  medium-sized  ear,  neatly  attached 
to  the  head,  is  desired.  The  jowl  should  be  neat  and  trim.  It  should 
not  be  loose  and  flabby,  because  this  indicates  an  excessively  fat  condi- 
tion, lack  of  firmness  in  covering,  and  lack  of  intermixture  of  fat  and 
lean  in  the  carcass.  Trim,  firm  jowls  from  light-weight  hogs  may  be 
made  into  bacon  squares.  The  cheeks  and  jowls  should  be  free  from 
wrinkles  or  seams.  The  poll  of  the  head  should  be  broad  and  carry 
forward  prominently. 

The  neck  should  be  of  medium  length,  slightly  arched,  and  medium 
broad  on  top.  A  neck  that  is  narrow  or  peaked  on  top  is  not  often 
associated  with  a  body  of  the  desired  conformation,  and  it  also  denotes 
lack  of  condition. 

The  shoulders  are  very  frequently  too  open  and  prominent,  so 
that  as  one  looks  down  at  the  top  of  the  hog  the  shoulders  are  found  to 
be  much  the  widest  part  of  the  animal.  They  should  be  well  laid  in, 
very  smooth,  and  have  no  greater  width  than  the  rest  of  the  body, 
such  a  hog  being  much  more  desirable  from  a  market  and  carcass  point 
of  view.  The  tops  of  the  shoulders  should  not  stand  open  and  apart, 
but  should  be  laid  together  and  thickly  fleshed  so  as  to  present  a  fairly 
wide  and  very  smooth  surface  in  harmony  with  the  rest  of  the  top. 

The  front  legs  should  be  of  medium  length,  this  being  a  somewhat 
variable  feature  depending  on  the  breed,  and  they  should  also  be 
straight.  It  is  especially  important  that  the  pasterns  shall  be  short, 
upright,  and  very  strong,  and  that  the  feet  shall  be  strong  also.  These 
points  should  be  particularly  emphasized,  for  it  is  a  fact  that  weak, 
broken-down  pasterns  and  weak,  spreading  toes  are  among  the  most 
common  and  most  serious  faults  to  be  found  in  swine  of  the  lard  type. 
Weak  legs  may  be  due  to  a  natural  or  inherited  weakness,  or  to  im- 
proper feeding  during  the  growing  period.  If  growing  pigs  are  fed  on 
com  exclusively,  they  are  liable  to  develop  weakness  of  the  legs,  be- 
cause corn  does  not  carry  sufficient  bone-  and  muscle-building  con- 
stituents to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  animal  during  the  growing 


322 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Ln^  Stock 


period.  The  bone  of  the  market  hog  should  be  medium  in  size,  free 
from  coarseness,  and  amply  sufficient  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  hog 
and  to  provide  strength  of  feet,  pasterns,  and  legs. 

The  chest  is  an  evidence  of  the  constitutional  vigor  possessed  by 
the  animal.  It  should  be  deep  and  wide,  and  should  be  well  filled  out 
behind  the  shoulders  and  elbows,  affording  a  large  heart-girth.  The 
underline  should  not  cut  up  between  the  fore  legs,  but  carry  straight 
forward  so  as  to  give  as  much  depth  through  the  chest  as  through  the 
middle  of  the  body. 

The  back  and  loin  of  the  lard  hog  are  very  important  parts.  They 
should  be  rather  long  and  of  good  but  not  excessive  width,  and,  as  the 


Fig.  116. — Berkshire  barrow,  grand  champion  at  the  1921  International. 
Fitted  and  shown  by  the  University  of  Minnesota.  Especially  good  in  depth  of  body, 
finish,  smoothness,  and  quality. 

animal  is  viewed  from  the  side,  they  should  be  arched.  The  top  of 
the  hog  should  be  thickly  fleshed  and  smooth.  There  should  be  no 
marked  rounding  off  from  the  middle  line,  but  instead  a  slight  arch 
over  the  top  from  side  to  side  and  good  width  of  top  due  to  well-sprung 
ribs  and  thick  but  not  excessive  fleshing.  A  "ridgy"  back  is  an  evi- 
dence of  lack  of  fleshing,  and  a  narrow,  "sunfish"  conformation  is  very 
faulty  for  the  same  reason  and  also  because  such  animals  are  often 
deficient  in  constitution  and  feeding  qualities.  A  dip  in  the  back,  or 
sway-back  conformation,  greatly  detracts  from  the  appearance  of  the 
animal  and  may  indicate  weakness  of  muscling;  hence  the  cuts  from 
the  back  and  loin  may  be  lacking  in  lean  meat. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


323 


The  sides  of  the  hog  should  be  long  from  shoulder  to  ham  and 
should  carry  down  straight  and  deep  from  back  and  loin  to  belly  and 
flanks.  Very  short  hogs  raised  and  fed  for  market  are  open  to  objec- 
tion because  such  a  type  does  not  grow  rapidly.  On  the  other  hand, 
extreme  length  is  often  secured  at  the  expense  of  constitution  and 
feeding  qualities.  Extremes  are  to  be  avoided.  When  fattened  for 
the  market,  the  sides  should  be  thickly  and  smoothly  fleshed  so  that 
every  point  along  the  side  fills  out  to  meet  the  same  straight  line  from 
shoulder  to  ham.  Wrinkles  in  the  skin  along  the  side  are  objectionable 
because  they  injure  the  smoothness  of  appearance  which  is  so  desirable, 
and  if  the  wrinkles  are  very  deep  and  are  permanent,  that  is,  do  not 


Pi 

I  mm 

Bill, 

r  m 

»             i'l 

I^^K^m  ^^                          -*M^^ 

^^M-                 ^^                                     „        .  ^ 

Fig.  117. — Duroc-Jersey  barrow,  grand  champion  at  the  1922  International. 
Bred,  fed,  and  shown  by  the  Oklahoma  Agricultural  College.  Note  his  good  form, 
excellent  finish,  smoothness,  and  quality. 

disappear  when  the  hog  changes  position,  they  are  called  "creases"  or 
"seams"  and  are  highly  undesirable.  Creases  most  often  occur  just 
behind  the  shoulder,  but  they  may  occur  all  along  the  side.  They 
involve  not  only  the  skin  but  also  the  flesh  underlying  the  skin,  so  that 
when  the  fingers  are  inserted  into  them  they  are  found  to  be  deep  and 
pronounced.  They  indicate  lack  of  quality  and  lack  of  evenness  in 
fleshing,  and  are  especially  objectionable  because  they  remain  in 
the  side  meat  after  it  has  been  pressed  and  cured  by  the  packer, 
thereby  injuring  the  appearance  of  such  cuts  and  affecting  their  selling 
price. 


324  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

The  belly  should  be  straight,  not  paunchy,  insuring  a  good  dressing 
percentage  when  the  hog  is  killed.  The  belly  should  be  trim,  not 
flabby,  and  should  be  wide  rather  than  narrow  or  V-shaped. 

The  rump  should  be  long  and  as  wide  as  the  rest  of  the  top,  and  it 
should  carry  out  from  hips  to  end  of  body  with  a  slight  curve  down- 
ward to  coincide  with  the  arch  of  the  entire  top  from  head  to  tail. 
Very  often  the  rump  will  be  found  very  steep  or  drooping,  the  hips 
being  carried  too  high  and  the  tail  set  very  low.  Accompanying  this 
kind  of  a  rump,  and  to  a  certain  extent  causing  it,  is  a  faulty  position 
of  the  hind  legs,  the  feet  being  set  too  far  under  the  body.  This  con- 
stitutes a  weak  conformation  of  the  hindquarter,  and  gives  the  animal 
an  ungainly  appearance.  The  rump  should  not  taper  in  width  from 
hips  to  end  of  body,  but  be  uniform  in  width  throughout. 

The  hams  really  include  the  rump  as  well  as  the  thighs  and  twist. 
They  should  be  large  and  well  developed,  being  deep  and  of  good  width, 
with  the  thickness  and  fullness  carried  well  down  toward  the  hocks. 
They  should  be  reasonably  firm  in  flesh  and  should  be  neat  in  form. 
Flabby  and  baggy  hams  are  undesirable  because  they  carry  too  much 
outside  fat  and  require  too  much  trimming  off  before  they  can  be  sold. 
Some  hams  lose  15  per  cent  in  trimming  at  the  packing  house. 

The  hind  legs  should  be  of  medium  length  and  should  carry  down 
straight  and  vertical  from  the  hocks  to  the  ground.  The  pasterns 
should  be  short,  upright,  and  very  strong,  the  feet  well  formed,  and  the 
toes  strong.  The  bone  of  the  market  hog  should  be  of  medium  size 
and  free  from  coarseness. 

The  hair  should  be  straight  rather  than  curly,  and  should  be  fine. 
A  harsh,  bristly  coat  is  an  evidence  of  coarseness.  A  curly  coat  is 
objectionable  because  curly  hair  is  usually  coarser  than  straight  hair, 
and  curly-coated  hogs  do  not  shed  their  coats  properly,  which  injures 
the  appearance.  A  swirl  or  rose  in  the  hair  on  the  back  or  rump 
detracts  from  the  appearance,  and  is  objectionable  for  that  reason. 
The  hair  should  be  abundant,  straight,  and  fine,  and  should  lie  close 
to  the  skin.  Such  a  coat  affords  the  most  protection  and  adds  to  the 
attractiveness  of  appearance. 

The  quality  of  the  lard-type  hog  is  determined  by  the  refinement 
of  the  head,  hair,  and  bone,  smoothness  of  finish,  and  freedom  from 
wrinkles  and  creases.  The  hog  with  quality  has  a  clean-cut,  well- 
bred  appearance  that  pleases  not  only  the  producer  and  hog  fancier, 
but  also  the  butcher,  because  such  a  hog  yields  a  neat,  tidy  carcass 
that  attracts  buyers,  and  the  cuts  of  meat  show  a  refined  texture  that 
is  not  to  be  found  in  the  cuts  from  a  coarse,  rough  hog. 

The  proper  finish  of  a  lard-type  hog  is  secured  by  a  fairly  high 
degree  of  fattening.     When  handled  along  the  top,  below  the  shoulders, 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


325 


and  at  the  lower  border  of  the  hams,  the  fleshing  should  be  firm  instead 
of  soft  as  is  often  the  case,  especially  in  some  breeds.  Some  hogs  be- 
come lumpy  in  their  covering  of  fat,  which  is  objectionable.  When  the 
fattening  has  proceeded  far  enough  to  round  out  the  lines  of  the  animal 
and  give  him  a  smooth,  springy,  mellow  covering  of  flesh,  he  is  in  the 
right  condition  to  meet  with  most  favor  from  the  butcher,  and,  as  a 
rule,  this  degree  of  finish  is  most  profitable  to  the  producer. 

The  temperament  of  the  lard-type  hog  is  quite  different  from  that 
of  the  bacon  hog,  being  less  active  and  more  inclined  to  quietness, 
lying  down,  and  the  taking  on  of  fat.     Ideas  as  to  what  is  most  desirable 


m^- 

-'*J*"'P"WF-. 

«"' 

y^s.nf  T^gjKlWlB^ 

1 

f  ■ 

r*C 

'.I 

'«! 

Fig.  118. — Some  essentials  in  type  well  illustrated.  Duroc-Jersey  barrow 
shown  by  the  University  of  Minnesota,  second  in  class  to  the  grand  champion  at  the 
1922  International.  Remarkably  good  in  top  line,  bone,  pasterns,  feet,  head,  neck, 
shoulders,  and  smoothness.  Lacking  somewhat  in  depth  of  body  and  condition 
because  he  could  not  be  given  a  full  feed  without  making  him  too  heavy  for  showing 
under  the  1922  International  classification. 


in  the  temperament  of  this  type  of  swine  are  tending  somewhat  away 
from  the  one  formerly  in  favor,  namely,  that  a  hog  should  eat  and  lie 
down,  and  that  a  minimum  of  exercise  is  conducive  to  greatest  economy 
in  pork  production.  Most  producers  believe  that  better  results  are 
secured  if  the  hog  is  disposed  by  temperament  to  take  considerable 
exercise,  especially  during  the  growing  period ;  they  are  selecting  more 
active  hogs  for  breeding,  and  are  managing  their  young  stock  in  such 
a  way  as  to  induce  them  to  take  a  large  amount  of  exercise.     This 


326 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


results  in  growthy  pigs  of  robust  constitution  and  lessens  the  danger 
of  disease.  Exercise  also  develops  the  muscles  and  strengthens  the 
pasterns  and  legs.  Notwithstanding  this  present-day  tendency  to 
select  a  more  active  hog  than  in  the  past,  there  must  always  be  con- 
siderable difference  between  the  lard  type  and  bacon  type  in  this 
respect,  the  former  being  more  quiet,  slower  in  movements,  and  having 
greater  natural  aptitude  to  fatten. 

The  weight  for  age  is  an  important  consideration  because  it  is  a 
measure  of  the  profit-making  ability  of  the  hog.  Pigs  weighing  over 
150  pounds,  fattened  for  the  market,  should  have  at  least  one  pound 
of  weight  for  every  day  of  their  age.  On  this  basis,  a  pig  six  months 
old  should  weigh  not  less  than  180  pounds.     It  is  not  unreasonable  to 


Fig.  119. — Five  Poland-China  barrows,  first  in  get-of-sire  class  and  including 
the  grand  champion  pen  of  three  barrows  at  the  1922  International.  Bred,  fed,  and 
exhibited  by  Iowa  State  College. 


fix  the  standard  of  weight  for  lard  hogs  six  months  old  at  200  pounds; 
nine  months,  300  pounds;  twelve  months,  400  pounds.  Hogs  are 
matured  at  about  thirty  months  of  age.  Mature  boars  in  good  condi- 
tion should  weigh  800  pounds  or  over;  sows,  600  pounds  or  over.  The 
average  weight  of  hogs  received  at  the  large  markets  at  the  present 
time  is  about  225  pounds.  Hog  growers  are  agreed  that  weights  from 
200  to  275  pounds  for  market  hogs  are  usually  most  profitable. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
THE  BACON-TYPE  HOG 

The  bacon  hog  presents  some  very  marked  differences  when  com- 
pared with  the  lard  hog  in  form,  fleshing,  and  temperament.  These 
differences  are  very  necessary  because  the  bacon  hog  yields  a  product 
that  is  quite  different  from  that  of  the  fat  or  lard  hog.  The  foremost 
countries  in  bacon  production  are  England,  Denmark,  and  Canada,  the 
first  mentioned  consuming  the  surplus  production  of  the  other  two. 
It  is  a  superior  product  to  that  with  which  the  American  public  is 
supplied,  being  the  finest  that  is  produced.  American  bacon  is  the 
belly  meat  of  the  lighter  and  thinner  hogs  of  the  lard  type,  but  English 
bacon  is  supplied  by  a  hog  the  entire  side  of  which  is  suitable  for  bacon. 
Denmark  and  Canada  ship  bacon  to  England  in  the  form  of  what  is 
called  the  "Wiltshire  side."  A  Wiltshire  side  represents  half  the  car- 
cass of  the  hog,  minus  the  head  and  legs.  The  neck,  shoulder,  back, 
loin,  side,  belly,  and  ham  are  included,  and  all  of  these  parts  are  retailed 
as  bacon  except  the  ham  and  shoulder. 

The  best  bacon  contains  a  relatively  large  amount  of  lean  meat 
and  small  amount  of  fat.  The  price  charged  for  bacon  at  wholesale  or 
retail  is  very  largely  regulated  by  these  features,  a  cheap  slab  of  bacon 
always  being  characterized  by  greater  thickness,  little  lean,  and  much 
fat.  The  production  of  high-quality  bacon  therefore  necessitates  a 
different  kind  of  hog  than  the  lard  hog,  a  hog  disposed  to  be  muscular 
and  active,  but  not  a  hog  that  fattens  readily.  The  production  of  the 
best  bacon  also  necessitates  feeding  this  hog  on  such  feeds  as  will  furnish 
nitrogenous  or  muscle-building  materials  in  abundance,  the  carbona- 
ceous or  fat-forming  elements  of  the  ration  being  supplied  in  much 
less  amount  than  would  be  advisable  if  lard  hogs  were  being  fed.  This 
fact  explains  why  but  few  bacon  hogs  are  found  in  the  corn  belt,  and 
also  why  the  United  States  is  able  to  "produce  the  lard  hog  at  lower  cost 
than  he  can  be  produced  elsewhere.  Whereas  corn  plays  a  large  part 
in  the  production  of  lard-type  swine  for  the  market,  the  bacon  hog  is 
fed  on  such  feeds  as  peas,  barley,  oats,  and  skim  milk  or  buttermilk, 
which  are  much  better  suited  to  bacon  production  than  is  com,  be- 
cause they  contain  a  larger  percentage  of  protein. 

Weights  desired  in  bacon  hogs. — It  is  important  that  the  producer 
of  bacon  hogs  turn  them  off  to  market  at  that  period  in  their  develop- 
ment when  the  character  of  the  flesh  will  be  nearest  the  bacon  ideal. 
To  be  more  explicit,  if  the  hog  is  marketed  too  young  its  flesh  will  be 

327 


328 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


watery  and  flabby,  whereas  further  feeding  and  more  age  result  in  a 
more  desirable  carcass.  Young  pigs  have  a  very  strong  tendency  to 
utilize  their  feed  for  growth,  and  as  they  become  older  and  are  more 
matured  they  fatten  much  more  readily.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the 
best  bacon  comes  from  hogs  within  certain  limits  of  weight.  Bacon 
pigs  vary  in  the  weight  at  which  they  acquire  the  proper  degree  of 
finish  depending  upon  how  they  are  fed  and  also  upon  the  breed  and 
the  individual.  When  various  breeds  are  fed  alike,  or  individuals  of 
the  same  breed  are  fed  alike,  some  reach  the  proper  finish  earlier  than 
others.  George  B.  Roth  well  states^  that  some  strains  of  Berkshires 
are  finished  at  170  pounds,  others  at  200;  and  that  some  Yorkshires 


Fig.  120. — Fancy  market  bacon  pig. 


finish  best  at  210  to  220  pounds  and  over.  Experience  has  shown  that 
a  weight  of  160  pounds  is  the  minimum  weight  at  which  to  market  a 
bacon  hog  and  that  the  upper  limit  is  220  pounds.  These  figures 
represent  the  extremes;  the  best  bacon  carcasses  are  from  hogs  that 
weighed  185  to  200  pounds.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  bacon  hog 
reaches  maturity  at  a  weight  of  200  or  220  pounds,  or  that  it  is  desirable 
that  he  should  do  so.  The  matured  weight  for  boars  in  good  flesh 
should  be  not  less  than  700  pounds,  and  for  sows  not  less  than  500 
pounds. 

When  the  carcass  of  a  bacon  hog  is  split  down  the  back,  the  layer 
of  fat  along  the  spine  and  back  should  be  not  less  than  1  inch  or  more 


^Dominion  Experimental  Farms,  Seasonable  Hints,  No.  24,  Nov.,  1922,  p.  34. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  329 

than  13^  inches  in  thickness,  and  it  should  be  as  uniform  in  thickness 
as  possible  from  one  end  to  the  other.  The  production  of  the  best 
Wiltshire  sides  is  possible  only  from  hogs  that  are  long  from  shoulder 
to  ham,  light  and  smooth  in  the  shoulder,  neck,  and  jowl,  and  very- 
straight  and  trim  along  the  belly. 

When  thinking  of  a  bacon  hog  we  usually  have  in  mind  such  a 
hog  as  the  market  wants,  in  other  words,  a  hog  suitable  for  slaughtering 
and  cutting  up  into  Wiltshire  sides.  Also,  from  what  has  been  said  of 
the  importance  of  certain  weight  requirements,  it  is  at  once  apparent 
that  boars  and  breeding  sows  are  not  desired  by  the  packer.  If,  how- 
ever, their  form,  quality,  and  temperament  are  such  as  will  cause  them 
to  transmit  to  their  pigs  the  characteristics  which  are  necessary  in 


Fig.  121. — Correct  bacon  type. 

order  that  these  pigs  may  be  fed  out  successfully  for  the  bacon  market, 
then  the  boar  and  sow  are  said  to  possess  bacon  type.  In  judging 
breeding  stock,  certain  allowances  must  therefore  be  made  and  certain 
points  must  be  emphasized  which  do  not  concern  us  in  judging  bacon 
hogs  for  slaughter.  The  same  general  principles  and  the  same  general 
type  apply  in  both  cases,  but  the  judge  must  emphasize  certain  points 
that  are  peculiar  and  essential  in  each. 

The  form  of  the  bacon  hog  is  quite  different  from  that  of  the  lard 
hog.  There  is  much  less  thickness  and  depth  of  body,  greater  length 
of  leg,  a  lighter  shoulder,  neck,  and  jowl,  and  greater  length  from  snout 
to  tail,  especially  from  shoulder  to  ham.  From  the  snout  to  the  rear 
border  of  the  shoulder  the  hog  should  be  comparatively  short,  this 
being  the  low-priced  end  of  the  carcass.     There  is  considerable  differ- 


330 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


ence  between  the  retail  prices  received  for  the  front  and  hind  ends  of 
the  Wiltshire  side.  Length  of  side  from  shoulder  to  ham  and  length 
of  ham  from  front  to  rear  are  of  very  great  importance,  but  it  is  a 
mistake  to  make  everything  else  secondary  in  importance  to  length; 
length  should  not  be  carried  to  the  greatest  possible  extreme.  The 
hog  should  have  enough  depth  and  width  of  body  to  give  him  a  strong 
constitution  in  a  well-developed  chest  and  middle.  This  applies  both 
to  the  market  hog  and  the  breeding  animal.  There  should  be  as 
much  depth  of  body  in  front  as  behind,  and  as  much  width  at  one  point 
as  another — in  other  words,  the  hog  should  be  symmetrical  or  balanced 
in  his  conformation.  Great  smoothness  from  one  end  to  the  other  is 
a  prim^e  essential,  and  smoothness  must  be  secured  without  the  assist- 


ii  .       ■.../.-.- -^ ... 

Fig.  122. — Bacon  type  as  shown  in  the  herd  boar.  This  Yorkshire  boar  shows 
the  desired  form,  smoothness,  and  quality.  Note  the  clean-cut,  trim  appearance, 
light  jowl,  long  smooth  side,  deep  flanks,  tapering  ham,  and  large  smooth  bone. 


ance  of  much  fat,  such  as  greatly  assists  in  giving  smoothness  to  the 
lard  hog. 

Proper  quality  in  a  market  bacon  hog  is  very  important  because 
a  rough  or  coarse  appearance  detracts  much  from  the  price,  and  be- 
cause it  is  desired  that  the  flesh  be  fine  in  texture.  In  both  market 
hogs  and  breeding  stock,  a  fine,  smooth  coat  of  hair  denotes  quality. 
Well-developed  wrinkles  or  seams  in  the  skin  indicate  coarse-grained 
flesh,  and  injure  the  appearance  of  the  finished  product.  The  snout, 
face,  jowl,  and  ear  should  show  refinement,  yet  not  to  an  extreme  that 
indicates  lack  of  vigor  and  feeding  qualities.  The  bone  should  be 
flinty  and  smooth,  rather  than  coarse  and  rough.     Coarse  bone  is  verj' 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  331 

objectionable  because  it  indicates  hard  feeding  qualities  and  slow 
maturity.  The  butcher  prefers  a  fine-boned  hog,  but  the  breeder 
wants  the  boar  to  stand  on  heavy,  clean  bone  covered  with  skin  that 
shows  no  coarseness.  The  brood  sow  should  have  finer  bone  than  the 
boar,  but  it  should  be  in  every  way  proportionate  to  her  weight,  plus 
the  added  weight  resulting  from  pregnancy. 

Proper  condition  for  a  market  bacon  hog  is  a  feature  requiring 
considerable  practice  in  judging.  There  is  danger  of  too  high  a  degree 
of  fatness,  even  though  the  live  weight  be  within  the  limits  that  have 
been  mentioned.  People  who  live  in  the  corn  belt  experience  some 
difficulty  in  accepting  a  properly  finished  market  bacon  hog  as  such 
when  first  taking  up  a  study  of  this  type.  To  them  the  hog  looks 
considerably  underdone.  The  indications  of  the  proper  degree  of  fat- 
ness are  difficult  to  describe.  The  hog  has  a  well-fed,  thrifty  appear- 
ance, but  not  a  finished  look  comparable  to  that  of  the  properly  finished 
lard  hog.  The  flesh  is  firm  and  the  hog  is  reasonably  well  filled  out. 
Soft  flesh  at  the  lower  part  of  the  hams,  at  the  lower  border  of  the 
shoulder,  or  on  the  jowl,  is  undesirable  because  it  indicates  an  over-fat 
condition  and  an  uneven  distribution  of  the  fat.  Smoothness  and  firm- 
ness of  fleshing  are  decidedly  essential. 

As  indicating  the  importance  of  proper  feeding  and  the  proper 
finish,  George  B.  Rothwell  states  ^  that  the  feeding  of  the  market  bacon 
hog  is  almost,  if  not  equally,  as  important  as  the  breeding.  He  par- 
ticularly cautions  against  overfeeding  and  recommends  that  young  pigs 
be  kept  hungry  and  that  exercise,  green  feed,  and  feeds  that  produce 
bone  and  muscle  be  provided  up  to  four  months  of  age.  He  states 
that  middlings,  shorts,  oats,  barley,  and  skim  or  buttermilk  make  a 
desirable  ration  at  this  stage,  and  that  com  and  barley  must  be  used 
sparingly,  though  they  may  be  used  more  heavily  during  the  last  6  or 
8  weeks.  He  concludes  by  saying,  "Once  more  and  lastly — avoid  over- 
feeding." 

The  style  of  the  bacon  hog  should  be  marked.  He  should  be  very 
active,  thus  indicating  a  full  muscular  development.  He  should  walk 
without  apparent  effort.  A  writhing  movement  when  walking  is  taken 
as  an  indication  of  weakness  in  muscling  along  the  back  and  loin. 

The  head  varies  in  shape  a  great  deal,  depending  to  a  large  extent 
upon  the  breed,  but  there  is  also  much  variation  between  individuals 
belonging  to  the  same  breed.  Length  of  snout  varies  with  the  breed. 
A  long  snout  is  very  often  associated  with  a  narrow  chest,  and  a  very 
short  snout  often  goes  with  a  heavy  jowl  and  neck.  The  face  should 
be  broad,  and  the  poll  should  be  broad  also  and  come  well  forward, 
these  being  indications  of  constitutional  vigor  and  feeding  qualities. 


Dominion  Experimental  Farms,  Seasonable  Hints,  No.  24,  Nov.,  1922,  p.  34. 


332  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Large,  prominent,  bright  eyes  indicate  health  and  constitution.  A 
heavy,  fat  jowl  denotes  too  strong  a  fattening  tendency  for  a  bacon 
animal.  Good  width  across  the  jowl  is  desirable,  but  it  should  be  very 
trim  and  neat.  Size  and  carriage  of  the  ear  vary  according  to  the 
breed.  A  large  ear  does  not  indicate  lack  of  quality  provided  it  is 
fine  or  thin.  Thick,  coarse  ears  denote  a  thick,  coarse  skin,  which,  in 
turn,  denotes  coarse-grained  flesh. 

The  neck,  while  not  a  valuable  part  of  the  carcass,  is  important 
as  indicating  constitution  and  feeding  qualities.  A  long,  thin  neck  is 
an  indication  of  deficient  constitution  and  low  feeding  qualities;  while 
a  short,  thick  neck,  with  a  crest  of  fat  on  top  will  result  in  a  side  of 
bacon  that  is  too  heavy  at  the  fore  end,  which  is  the  cheap  end  of  the 
side.  Moderate  length  and  width  of  neck  are  wanted.  It  is  to  be 
expected  that  mature  boars  will  have  heavier  necks  than  sows  or 
barrows. 

The  shoulders  should  be  light  and  set  in  the  body  smoothly.  They 
should  be  deep  from  top  to  bottom,  but  not  wide  from  front  to  rear, 
and  as  one  looks  down  on  the  top  of  the  hog,  they  should  show  no 
greater  fullness  than  the  back  and  loin.  Shoulders  that  have  more 
width  from  side  to  side  than  the  rest  of  the  hog  are  objectionable,  but 
nevertheless  should  be  given  preference  over  a  narrow  chest  in  a  breed- 
ing animal. 

The  chest  should  be  deep,  fairly  wide,  and  free  from  any  depression 
immediately  behind  the  shoulders,  and  the  breast  should  carry  well 
down  between  the  fore  legs  and  have  good  width,  thus  insuring  a  large 
chest  capacity. 

The  front  legs  should  be  rather  long,  but  not  extremely  so,  straight, 
strong,  with  upright  pasterns,  and  carrying  the  weight  full  on  the  toes. 

A  back  of  moderate  width,  slightly  arched  from  front  to  rear,  and 
rounded  over  the  top  from  side  to  side,  represents  correct  development 
in  this  valuable  part  of  the  carcass.  A  sagging  back  or  a  decidedly 
arched  back  is  an  evidence  of  weak  muscling  and  consequently  of  a 
lack  of  lean  meat  along  the  top  where  the  highest-priced  bacon  is  found. 
The  top  of  the  hog  should  show  a  slight  arch  from  head  to  tail,  the 
highest  point  being  over  the  loin.  A  wide,  flat  back  denotes  a  high 
degree  of  fatness  which  is  not  wanted  in  the  carcass  of  a  bacon  hog. 
A  very  narrow  back  is  an  indication  of  a  lack  of  lean  meat. 

The  loin  furnishes  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  side  of  bacon  and 
therefore  should  be  strongly  developed.  It  should  have  the  same  width 
and  form  as  the  back.  From  shoulder  to  hindquarter  the  top  of  the 
hog  should  exhibit  a  uniform  width,  uniform  arch,  and  uniform  fleshing. 

A  side  that  is  flat,  straight,  and  deep,  with  a  great  deal  of  length, 
and  carrying  a  firm,  smooth  covering  of  flesh  is  demanded.     The 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  333 

packer  likes  as  long  a  side  as  can  be  had,  but  the  breeder  must  avoid 
extreme  length  because  such  hogs  incline  to  be  narrow  and  shallow 
bodied.  They  lack  constitution  and  feeding  qualities  to  such  an  extent 
that  they  do  not  make  economical  gains  on  feed.  The  side  of  the 
bacon  hog  constitutes  the  most  important  consideration  in  judging 
either  breeding  or  market  animals.  Score  cards  for  bacon  hogs  allow 
more  points  to  the  side  than  to  any  other  part  of  the  animal.  When 
the  hog  is  standing,  a  straight-edge  laid  against  his  side,  either  vertically 
or  horizontally,  should  touch  every  point  beneath  it.  There  should  be 
no  signs  of  seams  or  wrinkles,  but  a  smooth  development  everywhere. 
The  side  should  also  be  firm  in  fleshing,  without  any  softness  just  behind 
the  shoulder  or  elsewhere. 


Fig.  123. — Bacon  type  us  shown  in  tlie  brood  sow.  The  prize-winning  York- 
shire sow,  Deer  Creek  Rena  6th,  owned  by  B.  F.  Davidson,  Menlo,  Iowa.  Note  the 
arch  of  top,  length  of  side,  smoothness  of  flesh,  lightness  of  jowl,  and  good  udder 
development. 

The  flank  is  important  because  a  high  flank  injures  the  appear- 
ance of  the  carcass,  necessitates  more  trimming  in  order  to  give  even- 
ness to  the  lower  border  of  the  side  of  bacon,  and  also  is  an  indication 
that  the  belly  meat  is  too  thin.  When  the  flank  is  carried  down  well, 
the  flesh  is  usually  carried  well  down  on  the  ham,  the  belly  is  thick  and 
meaty,  and  the  development  of  the  side  is  made  more  uniform  in  depth 
and  thickness. 

The  belly  should  be  straight,  trim,  firm,  thick,  and  free  from  flabbi- 
ness.  This  part  yields  good  bacon,  but  it  is  not  so  high  priced  as  that 
from  the  loin  and  back. 

The  rump  should  not  be  broad  and  flat,  which  indicates  too  much 
fat,  but  should  have  the  same  width  as  the  back  and  loin,  and  should 


334  Types  and  Market  Glasses  of  Live  Stock 

be  rounding  from  side  to  side  across  the  top,  the  same  as  the  back  and 
loin.  It  should  be  long  also,  and  should  round  slightly  toward  the 
tail,  but  should  not  be  drooping  with  the  tail  set  low. 

A  heavy,  bulging  ham  is  not  an  indication  of  correct  bacon  type. 
Such  hams  must  have  a  great  deal  of  fat  trimmed  off  them  in  preparing 
the  side  of  bacon  for  the  market.  The  ham  of  the  bacon  hog  should 
taper  toward  the  hock  and  should  be  smooth  and  firm,  especially  at 
the  lower  part  where  flabbiness  is  likely  to  occur.  The  flesh  should 
carry  well  around  the  bone,  inside  as  well  as  outside,  and  should  not 
taper  off  too  suddenly  below,  but  let  down  well  toward  the  hocks. 
The  ham  of  the  bacon  hog  is  often  called  the  "gammon." 

The  hind  legs  should  be  straight  and  strong,  the  pasterns  upright, 
and  the  weight  carried  full  on  the  toes. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
THE  HOG  CARCASS 


A  comparative  study  of  the  importance  of  the  various  kinds  of 
meat  in  American,  EngHsh,  French,  and  German  dietaries  discloses  the 
fact  that  civiHzation  is  greatly  dependent  upon  the  hog  and  its  products. 
The  following  table  gives  the  annual  per  capita  consumption  of  the 
various  kinds  of  meat  in  the  four  countries  mentioned,  and  shows  the 
large  contribution  of  the  hog  to  the  meat  supply: 

Per  capita  consumption  of  meat  in  four  countries 


Kind  of  meat 

United  States 
(1922) 

United 

Kingdom 

(average 

1906-1908) 

Germany « 
(1913) 

France  • 
(1904) 

Beef          

Pounds 

61.4 
7.3 
5.0 

90.1 

Pounds 

56.00 

4.00 

26.00 

33.00 

Pounds 
31.35 

7.25 

1.90 

71.30 

Pounds 

37.00 

Veal 

8.00 

Mutton  and  lamb 

9.00 

Pork,  including  lard 

26.00 

Total 

163.8 

119.no 

111.80 

80.00 

'  In  addition  to  the  above,  the  consumption  of  horse  flesh  amounted  to  about  1  pound  per  capita 
in  France,  and  in  Germany  1.9  pounds  of  goat,  horse,  and  dog  meat  was  consumed  per  capita. 

The  British  are  well  known  to  be  partial  to  beef  in  their  meat 
dietary,  and  the  Germans  to  pork,  and  this  is  amply  substantiated  by 
the  table;  nevertheless  it  is  seen  that  the  people  of  the  United  States 
consume  more  beef  than  the  British  and  more  pork  than  the  Germans. 
The  British,  however,  consume  more  mutton  per  capita  than  any  other 
nationality,  and  the  French  come  first  with  veal.  The  figures  show 
that  the  consumption  of  pork,  as  compared  with  the  consumption  of 
beef,  is  greater  than  might  be  supposed.  Americans  and  Germans  con- 
sume more  pork  than  beef,  but  the  table  shows  a  different  proportion 
for  the  English  and  French.  These  variations  may  be  due  to  differ- 
ences in  the  way  appetites  have  been  cultivated  in  the  various  countries, 
or  to  differences  in  the  quantities  of  pork  produced  and  the  cost  of  it. 

In  the  total  slaughter  (federally  inspected  and  all  other  slaughter) 
of  beef,  veal,  mutton,  lamb,  and  pork  in  the  United  States,  excluding 
lard,  beef  and  veal  constituted  43.7  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  in  1922, 
mutton  and  lamb  only  3.1  per  cent,  and  pork  53.2  per  cent.  ^ 


^Computed  from  Meat  Production,  Consumption,  and  Foreign  Trade  in  United 
States,  1907-1922,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Mimeographed  Report,  by 
John  Roberts. 

335 


336  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

The  type  of  hogs  found  in  the  several  countries  varies  considerably. 
In  the  United  States  the  fat  or  lard  type  is  produced  almost  exclusively, 
this  being  particularly  true  of  the  corn  belt.  The  stock  yards  of  this 
country  receive  practically  no  bacon  hogs;  the  St.  Paul  market  is  some- 
thing of  an  exception,  although  the  number  received  there  is  compara- 
tively small.  For  this  reason  we  shall  give  more  attention  to  the  fat 
carcass  than  to  the  bacon  carcass. 

Slaughtering  and  dressing. — When  the  hog  enters  the  packing 
house,  and  this  applies  to  both  the  lard  hog  and  the  bacon  hog,  he  is 
driven  into  a  small  pen  adjacent  to  a  large,  slowly  revolving  wheel, 
called  the  "hog  hoist,"  pictured  in  this  chapter.  A  chain  is  fastened 
about  a  hind  leg  and  hooked  into  a  link  on  the  wheel.  The  hog  is 
raised  as  the  wheel  turns,  until  he  reaches  an  overhead  inclined  rail 


Fig.  124.— The  hog  hoist. 

from  which  he  is  suspended  and  along  which  he  passes  to  the  "sticker." 
After  bleeding,  the  hog  is  dropped  into  a  scalding  vat  in  which  the  water 
is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  142  to  144  degrees  F.  This  loosens  the 
hair  and  scurf.  He  is  then  hooked  onto  a  chain  which  carries  him 
through  a  scraping  machine,  after  which  he  is  again  suspended  from  an 
overhead  rail  and  any  spots  of  hair  missed  by  the  machine  are  scraped 
by  hand  and  the  hair  inside  the  ears  and  about  the  face  is  singed  off 
with  a  gas  torch.  These  operations  and  the  subsequent  ones  necessary 
to  complete  the  dressing  process  are  briefly  as  follows:  (1)  Hoisting, 
(2)  bleeding,  (3)  scalding,  (4)  scraping,  (5)  singeing,  (6)  removal  of 
head,  (7)  disemboweling,  (8)  splitting,  (9)  removal  of  leaf  fat  and 
kidneys,  (10)  facing  hams,  ^  and  (11)  cooling.     The  carcass  remains  in 


^This  consists  of  smoothing  and  shaping  the  ham  by  trimming  off  excessive  or 
uneven  fat  surrounding  the  split  surface  or  face  of  the  ham. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  337 

the  cooler  at  a  temperature  of  34  degrees  F.  for  48  hours  before  it  is 
taken  to  the  cutting  room  for  division  into  the  wholesale  cuts.  Nearly 
all  carcasses  are  cut,  and  most  of  the  cuts  are  cured  by  pickling  and 
smoking  before  the  meat  is  sold  to  the  retailer. 

The  method  outlined  above  is  known  as  the  "packer"  style  of 
dressing.  The  legs,  feet,  and  jowl  are  left  as  part  of  the  carcass.  An 
exception  is  made  in  the  case  of  pigs  and  some  light  hogs  intended  for 
the  fresh  pork  trade,  these  being  "shipper"  dressed,  which  means  that 
the  head  is  left  on,  the  leaf  fat  and  kidneys  in,  the  hams  not  faced,  and 
the  backbone  not  split.  Some  variation  also  occurs  in  the  manner  of 
splitting  the  carcass.  All  dressed  hogs  are  cut  open  along  the  under- 
line and  through  the  aitch  bone  and  brisket,  but  the  best  heavy  car- 
casses, called  "loin  carcasses,"  are  split  through  the  center  of  the  back- 


FlG.  125. — Dressing  hogs. 

bone,  while  the  inferior  heavy  carcasses,  called  "packing  carcasses," 
are  sometimes  split  on  one  side  of  the  backbone.  Bacon  carcasses  are 
usually  cut  with  a  knife  on  each  side  of  the  backbone  and  then  split  on 
one  side  and  the  backbone  taken  out,  making  sides  suitable  for  the 
English  bacon  cuts. 

The  ofifal  and  the  dressing  percentage. — The  parts  which  the  hog 
loses  in  dressing  are  the  blood,  hair,  head,  viscera,  leaf  fat,  kidneys,  and 
ham  facings.  Hogs  having  a  live  weight  above  150  pounds  and  dressed 
packer  style  may  range  in  dressing  percentage  from  65  to  80  per  cent. 
Pigs  weighing  30  pounds  may  dress  as  low  as  60  per  cent.  Hogs 
dressed  shipper  style  have  a  dressing  percentage  about  8  per  cent  higher 
than  those  dressed  packer  style,  the  difference  being  due  to  the  head, 
leaf  fat,  kidneys,  and  ham  facings,  which  are  not  removed  in  the  shipper 


338 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


style  of  dressing.  Heavy  hogs  dressed  shipper  style  easily  dress  83  to 
85  per  cent.  Some  hogs  in  the  carcass  contests  at  the  International 
Live  Stock  Show  have  dressed  as  high  as  89,  89.3,  and  89.6,  but  these 
were  hogs  of  show-yard  quality  weighing  417,  429,  and  520  pounds 
respectively.  They  had  been  without  feed  or  water  for  more  than  24 
hours  prior  to  killing,  and  were  dressed  shipper  style.  The  chief  factors 
determining  the  dressing  percentage  of  a  hog  are  fatness  and  paunchi- 
ness,  of  which  the  former  is  by  far  the  more  important.  Dressing  per- 
centage is  an  important  factor  determining  the  price  of  market  hogs, 
though  less  important  than  with  cattle  and  sheep  because  market  hogs 
are  more  uniform  in  dressing  percentage  than  market  cattle  or  market 
sheep.  Market  hogs  of  the  same  weight  show  much  less  variation  in 
dressing  percentage  than  do  cattle  or  sheep  of  a  given  weight. 


Fig.  126. — Shipper-dressed  carcasses  in  the  cooler. 


Qualifications  of  a  good  carcass. — The  value  of  the  lard-hog  car- 
cass depends  upon  shape,  finish,  quality,  and  weight.  The  require- 
ments in  these  respects  are  as  follows: 

1.  Shape. — The  most  desired  carcass  is  straight  and  even  in  its 
lines,  wide  in  proportion  to  its  length,  well  developed  in  the  back,  loin, 
sides,  and  hams,  well  developed  but  free  from  heaviness  or  coarseness 
in  shoulders  and  neck,  and  smooth  throughout.  A  neat,  trim  carcass 
is  wanted  that  is  free  from  prominence  on  the  underline.  Hence, 
barrows  are  always  preferred  to  sows  because  sows  carry  more  cheap 
belly  meat,  this  being  especially  true  of  sows  that  have  had  several 
litters  of  pigs.     Such  sows  are  called  "seedy,"  and  they  bring  a  lower 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


339 


price  than  neat,  trim  animals  that  are  smooth  on  the  belly.  The 
accompanying  drawings  show  the  importance  of  the  underline  in  de- 
termining the  value  of  the  side  cut  from  a  hog.  The  trimming  from  a 
seedy  sow  goes  to  the  rendering  tank  and  is  made  into  a  cheap  grade  of 
lard. 


Side  from 
low-flanked  hog 


Side  from 
high-flanked  hog 


Side  from 
seedy  sow 


Fig.  127. — Effect  of  underline  on  trimming  of  side.     T,  trimming. 

2.  Finish. — The  degree  of  fatness  or  finish  is  shown  by  the  depth 
of  fat  along  the  back,  by  the  quantity  of  leaf  fat,  by  a  plump,  full 
appearance  throughout,  and  by  good  width  of  back  and  side  in  propor- 
tion to  length  of  body.  The  leaf  is  the  internal  fat,  including  the  kidney 
fat,  lying  under  the  ribs  and  extending  to  the  "skirt"  or  diaphragm. 
Packers  like  hogs  well  fattened  because  this  means  a  higher  yield  of 
lard  and  a  higher  dressing  percentage.  As  a  rule,  the  heavier  the  hog 
the  more  fat  he  carries,  because  the  nearer  an  animal  approaches 
maturity  the  more  easily  it  takes  on  fat. 

That  the  hog  is  by  nature  disposed  to  take  on  more  fat  than  any 
of  the  other  domestic  animals  is  shown  by  the  following  table  of  analyses 
made  at  the  Rothamsted  (England)  Experiment  Station. '  After  fast- 
ing from  18  to  24  hours  the  animals  were  killed  and  the  entire  bodies 
analysed. 


Composition  of  the  entire  bodies  of  meat-producing  animals 

Animal 

Age 

Live 
weight 

Protein 

Fat 

Mineral 
matter 
(ash) 

Total 
dry 
sub- 
stance 

Water 

Contents 
of  stom- 
ach and 
intestines 
—moist 

Fat  pig 

Lbs. 

185 

127 

1,416 

84 

258 

Per 

cent 

10.9 
12.2 
14.5 
12.3 
15.2 

Per 
cent 

42.2 

35.6 
30.1 
28.5 
14.8 

Per 
cent 

1.65 
2.81 
3.92 
2.94 
3.80 

Per 
cent 
54.7 
50.6 
48.5 
43.7 
33.8 

Per 
cent 

41.3 
43.4 
45.5 
47.8 
63.0 

Per 
cent 

3.97 

Fat  sheep 

15  mo. 

4  yrs. 

6  mo. 
8-9wks. 

6.02 

Fat  ox 

5.98 

Fat  lamb 

8.54 

Fat  calf 

3.17 

These  figures  show  why  the  corn  crop  has  formed  a  closer  alliance 
with  hogs  than  with  any  other  of  our  domestic  animals.  The  hog  is 
naturally  disposed  to  take  on  a  very  high  degree  of  fatness,  and  hog  fat 
is  more  valuable  than  the  fat  of  cattle  or  sheep.  Packers  desire  a 
thick  covering  of  outside  fat  on  the  carcass  of  a  lard  hog,  the  thickness 
varying  according  to  the  weight  of  the  carcass.    Wentworth  and 


'Jour.  Roy.  Agr.  Soc.  Eng.,  1898. 


340  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Gentry  of  Armour  and  Company  state  ^  that  butcher  hogs,  which  are 
"most  sought  by  the  packers  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,"  should  not  be 
"overfinished  and  extremely  lardy,  neither  should  they  be  so  unfinished 
as  to  lack  the  substance,  quality,  and  flavor  of  cuts  the  consumer  re- 
quires." 

3.  Quality. — The  carcass  is  said  to  have  quality  when  it  is  smooth 
in  shape,  firm  and  smooth  in  flesh,  fine  and  smooth  in  skin,  fine  in 
head  and  shanks,  fine  in  texture  of  flesh,  bright  in  color  of  lean,  and 
white  in  color  of  fat.  Creases  in  the  skin,  bruises,  staggy  necks  and 
shoulders,  and  seedy  bellies  all  indicate  coarseness.  Barrows  and 
smooth,  clear  sows  yield  carcasses  of  the  best  quality. 

Wentworth  and  Gentry  indicate  the  importance  of  good  finish  and 
quality  in  the  hog  carcass  in  the  following  comparison:  ^  "The  corn- 
fed  hog,  hung  in  the  cooler  to  chill  and  harden  for  48  hours,  will  come 
out  firm,  while  the  grass-fed  hog  may  be  as  soft  and  flabby  as  when  it 
went  in.  The  corn-fed  hog  cuts  easily  and  there  is  a  layer  of  pure 
white  fat  on  the  back.  The  loin  cuts  out  shapely,  and  the  flesh  is 
pink  and  fine  grained.  The  ham  has  the  proper  depth  of  fat  and  the 
belly  has  the  right  thickness  and  is  properly  streaked  with  lean  to 
produce  a  high-grade  bacon.  On  the  other  hand,  the  carcass  of  the 
grass  hog  fails  to  harden,  no  matter  how  long  it  is  chilled;  there  is  a 
tough  rind  over  the  loin  and  a  sheet  of  gristly  fat.  The  fat  is  yellowish 
and  the  flesh  is  stringy.  The  belly  makes  a  coarse,  inferior  bacon  and 
the  cuts  shrink  away  and  present  a  dried -up  appearance  when  smoked. 
Furthermore,  because  of  the  softness  of  the  carcass,  it  is  difficult  to 
produce  the  standard  cuts,  and  such  cuts  as  are  produced  must  be  sold 
at  a  low  price  or  be  used  for  sausage  or  rendering." 

Soft  pork. — Corn,  barley,  rye,  and  wheat  produce  firm  pork  be- 
cause the  fat  has  a  high  melting  point.  Peanuts,  mast,  and  sometimes 
soybeans  are  known  to  produce  soft,  oily  fat  having  a  low  melting 
point,  and  hogs  fed  on  these  feeds  yield  soft  pork.  For  this  reason 
hogs  from  the  southern  states  are  often  discriminated  against  in  price, 
sometimes  to  the  extent  of  2  to  4  cents  per  pound  live  weight.  Soft 
hogs  yield  inferior  lard,  usually  have  a  lower  dressing  percentage,  and 
the  percentage  of  condemned  livers,  kidneys,  hearts,  and  casings  is 
reported  to  be  greater.  ^  Varying  degrees  of  softness  are  found.  The 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  conducted  extensive  tests  involving 
800  hogs  and  found  that  the  loss  in  weight  from  the  cooler  to  the  end 
of  the  curing  and  retaining  period  was  over  2  per  cent  greater  in  soft 
pork  than  in  firm  pork.     Soft  carcasses  yield  cuts  of  poor  shape  and 


1  Progressive  Hog  Raising,  Armour  and  Company,  Chicago,  1922,  p.  74. 
2Ibid,  p.  70. 
'Ibid,  p.  48. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


341 


the  skin  shrivels  and  presents  a  poor  appearance.  Hogs  that  are  un- 
thrifty, unhealthy,  aged,  very  immature,  or  kept  under  adverse  condi- 
tions also  produce  pork  that  is  more  or  less  lacking  in  firmness. 

4.  Weight. — Packers  find  uses  for  carcasses  of  all  weights  ranging 
from  20  to  400  pounds  and  over,  but  Wentworth  and  Gentry  state  ^ 
that  hogs  with  a  live  weight  of  190  to  250  pounds  yield  cuts  of  the  most 
desired  size  and  weight.  All  carcasses  should  be  heavy  in  proportion 
to  their  size  to  insure  a  high  finish  and  cuts  of  the  best  shape. 


Fig.  128. — Fat  and  Ij.-ion  cin-ises  compared.  Note  the  difference  in  size, 
and  especially  the  difference  in  fatness,  between  the  fat  carcass  on  the  left  and  the 
bacon  carcass  on  the  right. 

Classification  of  Carcasses 

The  classification  and  grading  of  hog  carcasses  is  based  on  the 
uses  to  which  they  are  adapted,  or  in  other  words,  it  is  based  on  the 
products  into  which  they  can  be  converted.  The  generally  recognized 
classes  and  grades  and  their  respective  weights  are  as  follows:  ^ 


1  Progressive  Hog  Raising,  p.  70. 

*Louis  D.  Hall:  Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Meat,  111.  Bui.  147,  pp.  252-288. 


342  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Carcass  weight 

Smooth  Heavy,  or  Heavj'  Loin  Carcasses 240 — 400  lb 

Butcher,  or  Light  Loin  Carcasses 160 — 240  lb 

fHeavy 240—400  lb 

•  Medium 200—240  lb 

Light 100—200  lb 

Choice 120—160  lb 

•Good 110— 170  1b 

Common 90—110  lb 

Shippers 100—200  lb 

Pigs , 20—100  lb 


Packing  Hog  Carcasses. 
Bacon  Carcasses 


Smooth  heavy,  or  heavy  loin  carcasses  constitute  a  very  small 
part  of  the  general  supply.  They  are  from  prime  heavy  hogs  of  good 
quality,  either  barrows  or  good  clear  (not  seedy)  sows.  They  have 
over  4  inches  of  fat  on  the  back.  They  yield  heavy  loins,  hams, 
shoulders,  fat  backs,  and  dry-salt  bellies,  though  at  times  they  are  cut 
into  the  same  products  as  heavy  packing  hogs. 

Butcher  or  light  loin  carcasses  yield  the  best  loins.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  the  fresh  pork  sold  in  retail  markets  is  pork  loins,  which  are 
cut  into  chops  and  roasts.  Only  the  best  carcasses  weighing  160  to 
240  pounds  from  barrows  and  smooth  clear  sows  classify  here.  The 
covering  of  fat  on  the  back  should  be  from  2  to  4  inches  in  thickness. 
The  carcass  is  cut  into  the  regular  American  or  lard-hog  cuts.  (See 
Fig.  129.)  The  bellies  are  sweet  pickled  and  the  lighter  and  leaner 
ones  are  smoked  and  sold  as  breakfast-bacon  bellies. 

Packing  hog  carcasses  constitute  about  one-half  of  the  hog  car- 
casses in  Chicago  packing  houses.  These  are  inferior  carcasses  of  all 
weights  ranging  from  100  pounds  upwards.  They  are  coarse,  rough, 
and  unevenly  finished.  They  are  not  well  adapted  for  fresh  pork 
products  or  smoked  meats,  and  the  sides  are  therefore  principally 
packed  as  mess  pork,  barreled  pork,  and  dry-salt  meats.  In  times  of 
scarcity,  however,  the  sides  are  cut  into  loins,  fat  backs,  and  bellies, 
the  same  as  butcher  hogs.  This  is  more  often  true  of  the  light  and 
medium-weight  packing  carcasses  than  of  the  heavy  ones.  The  hams 
are  sweet  pickled  and  the  shoulders  made  into  picnics  and  Boston 
butts. 

Bacon  carcasses  are  the  lighter,  thinner  carcasses  suitable  for 
sugar-cured  breakfast-bacon  bellies  and  English  cuts,  so  called  because 
they  are  suitable  for  the  English  trade.  The  principal  English  cuts 
are  Wiltshire  sides,  Cumberland  sides,  and  long-cut  hams.  The  Wilt- 
shire side  comprises  the  entire  side  (half  the  hog),  minus  the  head, 
shanks,  shoulder  blade,  and  hip  bone.  The  belly  is  trimmed  smooth 
and  even.  These  sides  average  40  to  70  pounds  and  are  selected  espec- 
ially for  thickness  of  lean  meat  and  a  light,  even  covering  of  fat  from 
1  to  2y2  inches  thick,  not  exceeding  13/^  inches  in  the  best  grade. 
They  are  made  exclusively  from  choice,  lean  bacon  hogs.     Fig.  129 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


343 


shows  a  bacon  side  and  indicates  its  division  into  the  long-cut  ham 
and  the  long-cut  middle  or  Cumberland. 

Shippers  are  similar  to  butcher  hog  carcasses  in  shape  and  quality, 
but  are  lighter  in  weight  and  generally  not  so  highly  finished.  They 
are  used  for  the  fresh  retail  trade,  and  they  must  be  fancy  in  quality. 
They  are  extensively  sold  as  whole  carcasses  and  are  shipped  in  carlots 
to  eastern  points,  the  greatest  demand  being  in  the  winter  months. 

Pigs  are  carcasses  of  light,  young  hogs  that  are  comparatively  lean 
and  weighing  from  20  to  100  pounds.     They  are  dressed  and  sold  like 


Fig.  129. — Wholesale  cuts  of  pork. 

English  cuts.^A,  Long-cut  ham;  B,  long  side  or  middle. 

American  cuts. — 1,  Ham;  2,  loin;  3,  belly;  4,  picnic  butt;  5,  Boston  butt:  6, 
jowl;  7,  hock;  8,  fat  back;  9,  clear  plate;  2  and  8,  back;  2,  3,  and  8,  side;  4  and  7,  picnic 
shoulder;  5  and  9,  shoulder  butt;  8  and  9,  long  fat  back;  4,  5,  7,  and  9,  rough  shoulder. 


shippers.  Roasting  pigs  are  dressed  suckling  pigs  which  are  fat  and 
smooth.  They  are  sold  like  winter  lambs  direct  to  hotels  and  restau- 
rants. The  most  desired  weight  is  15  to  20  pounds,  but  pigs  weighing 
30  pounds  are  used. 

Wholesale  cuts  from  the  lard  hog.— After  the  carcass  has  been 
thoroughly  chilled  it  is  cut  up  into  shoulders,  hams,  fat  backs,  loins. 


344 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


spare  ribs,  and  belly.     These  wholesale  cuts  are  shown  in  the  drawings 
which  accompany  this  chapter.     (See  Fig.  129.) 

The  part  labeled  "fat  back"  is  a  clear  layer  of  outside  fat  contain- 
ing no  lean  meat.  Studies  of  the  carcasses  of  cattle  and  sheep  disclose 
the  fact  that  it  is  easily  possible  to  feed  a  steer  or  a  wether  too  long, 
and  thus  make  the  animal  too  fat  to  suit  the  consumer.  One-half  to 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  of  outside  fat  is  all  that  is  wanted  on  the  car- 
casses of  cattle,  and  for  mutton  and  lamb  the  desired  thickness  is 
proportionate  to  the  requirements  for  cattle.  With  fat  hogs  we  find 
an  entirely  different  state  of  affairs,  for  the  packer  wants  a  thick  layer 
of  fat  over  the  top  of  the  hog.  This  heavy  layer  of  fat  constitutes  a 
separate  cut  known  as  the  fat  back,  which  may  be  rendered  into  lard, 
or  dry  salted  and  sold  as  a  dry-salt  cut.     When  manufactured  into  lard 


Fig.  133. — A  side  of  pork.  Sawing  through  ribs  preliminary  to  cutting  into 
loin,  fat  back,  spare  ribs,  and  belly.  The  thick  layer  of  clear  fat  covering  the  loin 
is  the  fat  back.  The  belly  is  streaked  with  lean.  The  spare  ribs  are  trimmed  from 
the  belly.     The  front  or  shoulder  end  of  the  side  was  toward  the  camera. 

they  render  85  to  88  per  cent.  About  one-half  of  them  are  sold  as  a 
dry-salt  cut  for  which  a  demand  exists  in  the  South  and  in  Europe. 
Lard  is  more  valuable  than  tallow,  hence  the  difference  in  the  packer's 
attitude  toward  high  finish  in  the  lard  hog  as  compared  with  a  similar 
degree  of  fatness  in  cattle  or  sheep. 

The  belly  contains  streaks  of  lean  and  is  suitable  for  a  "breakfast 
bacon  belly"  if  the  cut  is  from  a  light-weight  hog.  If  the  hog  is  heavy, 
the  belly  cut  is  dry  salted  or  pickled  and  is  known  as  a  "dry-salt  belly" 
or  as  a  "sweet-pickle  belly,"  and  these  sell  at  lower  prices. 

Mr.  L.  D.  H.  Weld,  of  the  Commercial  Research  Department  of 
Swift  and  Company,  Chicago,  has  supplied  the  writer  with  the  follow- 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  345 

ing  table  showing  the  relative  weights  and  values  of  the  green  (fresh 
or  uncured)  cuts  from  a  250-pound  hog.  The  prices  are  those  pre- 
vailing in  March,  1923. 

Green  (fresh)  cuts  from  a  hog  having  a  live  weight  of  250  pounds 

Market  price 

Per  cent  of       of  green  cuts  Value  per 

Wholesale  cuts                                                                    live  weight         per  pound  cwt.  of 

Cents  live  hog 

Regular  hams 13.75  15  $2.06 

Skinned  shoulders 10.00  10  1.00 

Jowl 3.00                  8H  .26 

Bellies  (square  cut  and  seedless) 12.50  13  1.62 

Fat  backs 10.00                  9  .90 

Spare  ribs 1.00                 73^  .07 

Loins 10.00  13  1.30 

Miscellaneous  i 3.00                  5  .15 

Leaf  fat  (unrendered) 3.00  lOM  -32 

Cutting  fat  (unrendered) » 6.00                  7  .42 

Heads 4.50                  3?^  .16 

Total 76.75  8.26 

1  Includes  feet,  neck  bones,  tail,  and  a  small  amount  of  lean  trimmings. 

2  Includes  small  fat  trimmings  from  hams,  fat  backs,  bellies,  and  other  cuts.     It  is  rendered  into  lard. 

High-priced  and  low-priced  cuts. — There  is  less  variation  in  the 
prices  of  the  wholesale  cuts  of  pork  than  is  true  of  beef,  mutton,  or 
lamb.  The  loin,  rib,  and  round  of  the  beef  carcass  constitute  50  per 
cent  of  the  carcass  weight  and  70  per  cent  of  the  total  value.  The  ham, 
loin,  and  belly  of  the  250-pound  lard  hog  constitute  47  per  cent  of  the 
carcass  weight  and  60  per  cent  of  the  total  value.  All  of  the  larger 
cuts — hams,  shoulders,  bellies,  fat  backs,  and  loins — sell  readily  at  good 
prices,  whereas  it  is  difficult  to  dispose  of  some  of  the  cheaper  cuts 
from  cattle  and  sheep.  A  study  of  the  swine  carcass  emphasizes  the 
importance  of  good  development  in  all  parts  of  the  hog,  though  more 
especially  in  the  back,  loin,  sides,  and  hams. 

Weights  of  finished  products. — The  table  and  chart,  shown  on 
next  page,  from  Swift  and  Company's  1922  Year  Book,  shows  the 
weights  of  the  finished  products  from  a  250-pound  hog. 

Cured  pork  products. — Only  about  1  or  2  per  cent  of  the  hogs 
slaughtered  by  the  large  packing  houses  are  sold  as  whole  carcasses. 
About  three-fourths  of  the  wholesale  trade  in  pork  consists  of  various 
cured  meats  and  fresh  cuts,  the  remainder  consisting  principally  of 
lard  and  a  small  percentage  of  sausage  and  canned  meats.  Only  about 
20  per  cent  of  the  domestic  trade  and  5  per  cent  of  the  export  trade  in 
pork  products,  other  than  lard,  consists  of  fresh  meat.  ^  The  various 
curing  processes  perfected  by  American  packers  enable  them  to  store 
a  large  amount  of  pork  during  the  winter  season  of  heavy  receipts  for 
disposal  in  seasons  of  light  receipts.  Some  of  the  time  in  storage  is 
consumed  in  curing.     Pickling  requires  from  30  to  100  days,  and  the 

ilii.  Bui.  147. 


346 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


subsequent  smoking  requires  from  2  to  8  days.  ^  In  this  respect  pork 
has  a  decided  advantage  over  beef  and  mutton  which  are  sold  almost 
entirely  in  the  fresh  state,  and  the  hog  market  is  stabilized  to  some 
extent  as  a  result  of  it. 

The  only  pork  cuts  sold  extensively  as  fresh  cuts  are  loins,  tender- 
loins, and  spare  ribs.  Some  hams  and  shoulders  are  also  sold  in  the 
fresh  state.  Following  are  brief  discussions  of  the  various  curing  pro- 
cesses: 2 

Mess  pork,  which  is  made  from  packing  hog  carcasses,  is  a  simple 
method  of  packing  cheap  pork  and  was  much  used  in  the  early  days  of 


Pork  Products  from  a  250-PouniJ  Hog— Finished  Weights 


Ceat 

Pourul. 

Hams,  Smoked 

1)00 

)2S0 

Bellies  or  Bacon 

1175 

29)7 

Loins,  Fresh 

9  50 

2)75 

Fat  Backs,  Salted 

9.50 

2)75 

Lard,  Rendered 

9.00 

22  5IJ 

Picnics,  Smoked  Shoulder 

SOO 

12.50 

Boston  Butts,  Fresh 

42S 

10.6) 

Clear  Plates,  Salted 

2  75 

687 

Lean  Trimmings,  Sausage 

225 

5.6) 

Jowl  Butts,  Salted 

2. 25 

S.(2 

Spare  Ribs,  Fresh 

1  25 

313 

(1)  MiscM  Edible  Items 

).00 

7.50 

(2^  Edible  By-Products 

225 

5  62 

(3)  Xon-Edible  By-Products 

3  75 

938 

Shrinkage 

20.50 

51  2S 

Total  Live  Weight 

100% 

250  lbs. 

'  1 )  Includin?;  feet,  neck  bones. 

tails,  brains,  c 

heek  and  he.id  meat,  ears,  lips,  and  snouts. 
2j  Including:  plucks,  gullet  meat,  weasand  meal,  giblet   meat,  tongues,  kidneys,  and  stomach 
linings. 
(3(  Including;  casings,  blood,  hair,  grease,  and  tankage. 
Note — .Although  this  method  of  cutting  is  typical,  proportions  vary  with  trade  requirements. 


Fig.  131. ^Weights  of  the  finished  wholesale  cuts  from  a  250-pound  hog. 

the  packing  industry.  It  is  prepared  by  cutting  the  side  into  strips 
about  six  inches  wide  and  packing  in  salt  brine  (to  which  is  added  12 
ounces  of  saltpetre  per  barrel)  in  tight  barrels  (18x29  inches)  at  200 
pounds  net  weight  of  cured  pork  per  barrel  or  355  pounds  gross.  It  is 
shipped  principally  to  the  southern  states,  northern  lumber  camps,  and 
South  America. 

Barreled  or  plain-pickled  pork  is  similar  to  mess  pork  except  that 
more  salt  is  used  and  no  saltpetre  is  added.  It  consists  of  mess,  fat 
back,  and  belly  pork. 

Dry-salt  meats,  the  other  common  product  of  packing  carcasses, 
are  heavy  sides,  bellies,  shoulders,  fat  backs,  and  jowls  cured  in  dry 


1  Progressive  Hog  Raising,  p.  84. 
2111.  Bui.  147. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  347 

salt,  pumped  (injected)  with  brine,  and  shipped  in  coarse  salt.  They 
are  usually  shipped  loose,  but  sometimes  are  put  up  in  boxes  containing 
25  to  500  pounds. 

Sweet-pickled  meats  are  cured  in  sweet  brine  containing  syrup  and 
saltpetre.  The  bulk  of  sweet  pickled  and  other  sugar-cured  meats  are 
smoked  after  curing. 

Smoked  meats  are  cured  in  sweet  pickle  or  in  dry  salt  and  sugar, 
and  are  then  smoked  after  curing.  Hams  and  picnic  shoulders  from 
all  classes  of  hogs  are  generally  sweet  pickled  and  smoked.  Bacon 
meats  and  bacon  bellies  are  either  dry  salted  or  sweet  pickled  prior  to 
smoking.  The  best  of  these  are  breakfast  bacon  bellies  which  are  dry 
cured  and  smoked  lightly. 

English  meats  are  principally  cuts  from  bacon  hogs  and  are  dry- 
cured  in  English  salt  and  saltpetre  and  then  packed  in  borax  or  salt 
for  export,  chiefly  to  Great  Britain.  The  principal  cuts  handled  in 
this  way  are  long  bacon  sides,  long-cut  hams,  clear  ^  backs  and  bellies, 
and  square  shoulders.  After  shipment  abroad  they  are  generally  dried 
or  smoked  lightly  before  they  are  sold  at  retail. 

Boiled  meats  are  rolled  boneless  cuts,  including  hams,  picnic 
shoulders,  and  loins,  cured  in  sweet  pickle,  cooked  in  water,  and  lightly 
smoked.     They  are  made  principally  from  heavy  hogs. 

The  United  States  Census  of  1920  reported  the  total  value  of  the 
products  of  slaughtering  and  meat  packing  in  the  United  States  to  be 
$4,283,416,521.  The  following  list  of  these  products  is  of  interest  as 
indicating  the  importance  of  pork  and  the  relative  value  of  cured  pork 
and  cured  beef: 

Value  of  meats  and  meat  products  produced  in  United  States  in  1919 

Per  cent  of 
Product  Value  total  value 

Fresh  meat: 

Beef $846,794,386  19.8 

Veal 83,912,942  2.0 

Mutton  and  lamb 120,338.355  2.8 

Pork 532,669,835  12.4 

Cured  meat: 

Beef 28,359,892  .7 

Pork 1,217,589,927  28.4 

Canned  goods 96,904,341  2.3 

Sausage 173,587,401  4.0 

Lard 415,817,212  9.7 

Lard  compounds  and  substitutes.    123,724,098  2.9 

Oleooil 31,212,708  .7 

Other  oils 9,153,123  .2 

Tallow  and  oleo  stock 36,276,065  .8 

Stearin 8,999,349  .2 

Oleomargarine 36,777,815  .9 

All  other  products 521 ,299,072  12.2 

Total 4,283,416,521       100.0 

I  Backbone  and  ribs  removed. 


348  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

The  Grades  of  Lard ' 

From  one-tenth  to  one-third  of  the  hog  carcass  is  made  into  lard 
in  large  packing  houses,  the  proportion  varying  with  the  relative  price 
of  lard  and  grade  of  hogs.  Lard  is  sold  under  six  different  names 
representing  differences  in  whiteness,  grain,  flavor,  and  keeping  quali- 
ties. Lard  is  made  from  leaf  fat,  fat  backs,  and  fat  trimmings  from 
ham,  shoulder,  belly,  jowl,  and  head.  The  highest  grade  of  lard  is 
Kettle  Rendered  Leaf  Lard,  made  from  leaf  fat.  It  is  very  white  in 
color  and  finest  in  grain  and  flavor  of  all  grades  of  lard.  Then  there 
is  Kettle  Rendered  Lard  made  mostly  from  fat  backs,  with  perhaps  a 
small  addition  of  leaf  fat.  Fat  trimmings  are  also  used  at  times.  It 
ranks  second  only  to  the  preceding  grade.  Neutral  Lard  is  made  from 
leaf  or  back  fat  at  a  lower  temperature  than  is  required  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  kettle  rendered  leaf  lard.  No.  1  Neutral  Lard  is  made  from 
leaf  fat  only.  It  is  tasteless,  free  of  acids  and  impurities,  smooth 
grained,  and  remains  unchanged  in  odor  and  color.  No.  2  Neutral 
Lard  is  made  from  back  fat.  It  is  not  as  white  in  color  nor  as  fine  in 
grain  as  No.  1  and  sells  at  a  lower  price.  Ninety  per  cent  or  more  of 
the  lard  made  at  Chicago  is  known  as  Prime  Steam  Lard.  It  is  made 
from  fat  trimmings  and  internal  fats.  It  is  darker  colored  and  coarser 
grained  than  other  grades  and  is  the  form  in  which  hog  fat  can  be  most 
economically  stored  and  shipped.  It  is  refined  before  using.  Then 
there  is  Refined  Lard  made  from  prime  steam  lard  by  a  bleaching  and 
stirring  process.  Also  there  is  Compound  Lard  or  Lard  Compound, 
which  is  a  mixture  of  lard,  stearin  or  other  animal  fat,  and  vegetable 
oil,  usually  cottonseed  oil. 

By-Products  of  the  Hog 

A  larger  percentage  of  the  hog  is  edible  than  of  any  other  meat 
animal.  This  statement  includes  both  the  carcass  and  the  edible  by- 
products. The  hog  also  has  a  higher  dressing  percentage  than  any 
other  meat  animal,  and  the  percentage  weight  of  the  offal  (edible  and 
inedible)  is  correspondingly  less.  The  value  of  the  offal  from  hog 
slaughter,  including  lard,  is  much  less  in  proportion  to  the  live  value 
of  the  animal  than  it  is  with  cattle  or  sheep. 

Edward  N.  Wentworth,  director  of  Armour's  Livestock  Bureau, 
states  2  that  the  edible  by-products  of  the  hog,  excluding  lard,  average 
about  2.25  per  cent  of  the  live  weight,  that  the  inedible  by-products 
average  about  3.75  per  cent,  and  that  shrinkage  in  slaughtering  and 


1111.  Bui.  147. 

2  Monthly  Letter  to  Animal  Husbandmen,  The  Source  and  Use  of  Packing 
House  By-Products,  Armour  and  Company,  Chicago,  Aug.  1,  1920. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  349 

processing  averages  about  20  per  cent.  ^  He  states  that  heavy  hogs 
shrink  about  19  per  cent  and  Hght  hogs  about  22.5  per  cent  in  slaughter- 
ing and  processing.  The  average  value  of  inedible  by-products  derived 
from  6,673,657  hogs  slaughtered  at  Armour's  plants  from  November  1, 
1918,  to  November  1,  1919,  was  only  14  cents  per  head,  whereas  the 
value  of  the  carcass  and  edible  by-products,  including  lard,  amounted 
to  an  average  of  $43.41  per  head. 

Mr.  Wentworth  has  supplied  the  writer  with  the  following  list  of 
the  by-products  of  hog  slaughter  and  their  values  on  April  9,  1923. 
The  values  represent  averages  of  all  hogs  killed  that  day  by  Armour 
and  Company.  Their  average  live  weight  was  about  240  to  245  pounds, 
their  average  price  was  about  $8  per  cwt.,  and  their  average  live  value 
per  head  was  about  $19.20: 

Values  of  offal  (by-products)  from  average  of  all  hogs  slaughtered  by  Armour  and  Com- 
pany, Chicago,  on  April  9,  1923 

Edible  by-products  Total  Inedible  by-products  Total 

value  value 

Leaf  lard $.5569  Ear  drumsi $.0053 

Livers 0274  B.  W.  grease  ' 0763 

Hearts 0074  Nasal  tips  ' 0015 

Kidneys 0095  Grindings 0022 

Giblet  meat  • 0093  Viscera  (condemned) 0115 

Tongues 0834  Heads  (condemned) 0006 

Cheek  meat 0291  Pressed  tankage  i No  value 

Jaw  meat 0036  Dry  blood  i No  value 

Brains 0090  Hair  and  bristle 0225 

Prime  steam  lard 4756  

Casings 0300  Total  inedible 1199 

Total  edible 1.2412  Total  by-products 1.3611 

'  Giblet  meat  is  lean  trimmings  from  the  skirtings  (diaphragm),  gullet,  etc.  "B.  W."  is  the  first 
grade  of  brown  grease.  Ear  drums  are  sent  to  the  glue  works.  Nasal  tips  are  rendered  for  "A  White" 
grease.  Pressed  tankage  and  dry  blood  had  no  value  on  this  date  because  they  cost  as  much  to  produce 
as  could  be  realized  for  them  on  the  market. 

As  shown  above,  the  total  value  of  all  by-products  was  $1.36. 
This  is  only  7.09  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  live  hog.  The  value  of  the 
lard  amounted  to  $1.03,  or  over  75  per  cent  of  the  value  of  all  by-prod- 
ucts.    All  by-products  other  than  lard  had  a  value  of  only  33  cents. 

Among  the  edible  by-products  of  the  hog  are  pepsin,  derived  from 
hog  stomachs;  livers,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  liver  sausage;  and 
neutral,  a  specially  prepared  lard,  largely  used  as  an  ingredient  of 
oleomargarine.  Lard  proper  is  not  commonly  considered  a  by-product; 
it  is  one  of  the  primary  products  of  hog  slaughter.  Nearly  15  per  cent 
of  the  live  weight  goes  into  lard.  Part  of  this  lard  is  further  processed 
into  lard  oil  and  lard  stearin.  Lard  oil  is  used  for  illuminating  pur- 
poses and  as  a  lubricant.  Stearin  enters  into  the  manufacture  of  chew- 
ing gum  and  soft  candies. 


^This  includes  contents  of  stomach  and  intestines,  loss  of  weight  by  evapora- 
tion of  moisture,  and  waste  in  manufacturing. 


350  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Brains  are  packed  in  cans,  frozen,  and  offered  for  sale.  Tongues 
are  canned  or  pickled.  Hearts  go  into  sausage.  Tails,  snouts,  and 
ears  are  rich  in  gelatin  or  glue.  Kidneys  are  canned  or  frozen.  Milts 
or  spleens  are  used  as  a  feed  for  growing  fishes  at  fish  hatcheries.  The 
intestines  are  cleaned,  processed,  and  made  into  chitterlings,  a  food 
product  to  be  fried  like  oysters.  Stomachs  are  used  as  sausage  con- 
tainers. Something  like  7  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  hog  is  repre- 
sented in  inedible  by-products  in  the  raw  state  which  are  manufactured 
into  glue,  soap,  glycerin,  blood  meal,  tankage,  curled  hair,  and  fertilizer 
material.  Even  the  rinds  from  skinned  hams  and  bacons,  as  well  as 
the  back  skin  of  the  hog,  are  utilized  for  leather.     Nothing  is  wasted. 

Conclusions 

The  following  conclusions  may  be  drawn  from  the  study  of  the 
hog  carcass,  its  various  products,  and  the  by-products  of  the  hog: 

1.  In  order  to  bring  the  highest  market  price,  lard  hogs  must  be 
fat,  smooth,  free  from  paunchiness,  and  straight  and  trim  in  the  under- 
line. 

2.  The  lard  hog  should  be  well  developed  in  all  parts,  though 
more  especially  in  the  back,  loin,  sides,  and  hams. 

3.  Barrows  and  young,  smooth  sows  yield  the  best  carcasses. 
Carcasses  of  boars  and  stags  are  coarse  throughout  and  are  especially 
heavy  and  coarse  in  neck  and  shoulders.  Sows  with  seedy  bellies  are 
discriminated  against. 

4.  Hogs  with  a  live  weight  of  190  to  250  pounds  yield  cuts  of  the 
most  desired  size  and  weight,  but  weights  up  to  300  pounds  are  in  good 
demand. 

5.  Any  kind  of  a  hog  finds  a  buyer  on  the  market,  but  the  price 
paid  depends  upon  the  kind  of  carcass  the  hog  will  yield.  The  by- 
products of  the  hog  are  of  little  value  and  are  a  very  minor  factor  in 
live  prices. 

6.  The  curing  and  storing  of  large  quantities  of  pork  by  packers 
makes  pork  products  readily  available  in  seasons  when  the  supply  of 
live  hogs  is  limited,  thus  tending  to  increase  the  total  yearly  consump- 
tion of  pork  and  to  widen  the  market  for  live  hogs. 

7.  Curing  and  storing  enable  packers  to  more  readily  absorb 
large  runs  of  hogs  and  tend  to  sustain  live  prices  in  seasons  of  large 
receipts. 

8.  The  development  of  the  packing  industry  has  made  an  outlet 
for  the  plainer  sorts  of  hogs  which  otherwise  would  be  a  drug  upon  the 
market. 

9.  No  other  kind  of  meat  comes  so  nearly  being  manufactured 
by  packers  as  does  pork. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  351 

10.  No  other  animal  equals  the  lard  hog  in  its  fat-storing  ability. 

11.  The  production  of  lard  hogs  furnishes  a  logical  channel  of 
disposal  for  corn,  because  corn  is  a  fattening  feed  and  lard  brings  a 
higher  price  than  tallow. 

12.  Indian  corn  and  the  American  packing  industry  have  com- 
bined to  develop  the  American  hog  industry  into  a  business  of  mam- 
moth proportions.  Corn,  properly  supplemented,  makes  pork  econom- 
ically, and  pork  finds  ready  sale  because  packers  have  discovered  many 
ways  of  placing  pork  on  the  market  in  attractive  and  highly  palatable 
form  combined  with  most  excellent  keeping  qualities. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
HOG  MARKETS  AND  PORK  PACKING— PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Hogs  are  marketed  by  the  same  methods  and  are  shipped  to  the 
central  markets  and  sold  in  the  same  manner  as  cattle,  as  described  in 
Chapter  V.  In  addition  it  may  be  mentioned  that  local  auction  sales 
in  some  of  the  western  states  serve  as  a  means  of  marketing  a  consider- 
able number  of  hogs.  ^  Throughout  the  country  there  is  more  selling 
of  hogs  at  country  points  direct  to  packers  than  of  cattle  or  sheep. 
James  E.  Poole,  market  editor  of  the  Breeder's  Gazette,  states  ^  that 
country  buying  by  packers  is  increasing  rapidly  and  that  during  1922 
one  of  the  large  packers  was  credited  with  having  purchased  about  two 
million  hogs  in  Iowa  alone.  He  states  that  practically  every  packer 
of  importance  is  now  buying  hogs  at  country  points,  and  that  the  chief 
reason  advanced  in  support  of  the  practice  is  that  it  is  economical 
because  it  eliminates  market  expense.  He  also  quotes  an  official  of  a 
large  packing  company  as  stating  that  competition  compelled  that 
company  to  go  to  the  country  in  order  to  get  its  share  of  the  crop. 
The  proportion  of  hogs  slaughtered  on  farms  far  exceeds  that  of  cattle 
or  sheep. 

The  large  markets. — Most  of  the  large  hog  markets  of  the  United 
States  are  located  in  the  corn  belt.  The  13  largest  markets  and  their 
receipts  in  three  years,  as  reported  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricultural 
Economics,  are  as  follows: 

Receipts  of  hogs  at  leading  markets  in  three  years 

Market  1922  1921  1920 

1.  Chicago 8,156,472  8,147,646  7,526,120 

2.  St.  Louis 3,605,520  3,330,051  3,398,940 

3.  Indianapolis 2,266,551  2,694,705  2,896,894 

4.  Omaha 2,839,382  2,665,276  2,708,482 

5.  Pittsburgh 2,690,137  2,277,499  2,439,067 

6.  Kansas  City 2,654,959  2,204,556  2,466,419 

7.  St.  Paul 2,522,972  2,209,518  2,246,948 

8.  St.  Joseph 2,060,680  1,785,239  1,913,755 

9.  Sioux  City 1,855,829  1,738,584  2,172,637 

10.  Buffalo 1,474,520  1,602,875  1,493,981 

11.  Cincinnati 1,347,129  1,434,842  1,477,979 

12.  Baltimore 1,342,595  1,238,454  1,153,578 

13.  Cleveland 1,092,287  960,044  1,011,657 

Totals 33,909,033        32,289,289        32,906,457 

^The  California  Farm  Bureau  Marketing  Association  sold  2,175  carloads  of 
hogs  at  auction  during  the  four  years  ending  October  1,  1922.  These  were  sold  at 
69    sales  in  7  counties. — U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Agricultural  Cooperation,  Jan.  2,  1923. 

2Breeder's  Gazette,  Jan.  25,  1923. 

352 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


35S 


Sixty-eight  markets  received  44,067,489  hogs  in  1922.  The  13 
markets  Hsted  in  the  foregoing  table  received  77  per  cent  of  this  total. 

The  Chicago  market.  ^ — As  shown  by  the  above  figures,  Chicago 
is  in  a  class  by  itself  as  a  hog  market.  It  receives  more  than  twice  as 
many  hogs  as  St.  Louis,  its  nearest  rival.  The  total  value  of  the  hogs 
received  at  Chicago  in  1922  was  $182,598,270.  Their  average  value 
per  head  was  $22.40.  Their  average  live  weight  was  239  pounds. 
Their  average  price  per  cwt.  was  $9.20.  Of  the  8,156,472  hogs  received 
at  the  Chicago  yards  during  1922,  6,304,466  were  slaughtered  by 
Chicago  packers,  1,848,946  were  shipped  out  alive  to  other  points  for 
slaughter,  and  3,060  were  shipped  out  for  feeding.  In  addition  to  the 
hogs  included  in  the  above  figures,  small  packing  firms  at  Chicago, 
located  outside  the  yards,  received  direct  and  slaughtered  405,829  hogs 
in  1922. 

The  growth  of  the  Chicago  market  is  shown  by  the  following  list 
of  receipts  and  shipments  of  hogs  at  that  point  during  the  years  men- 
tioned: 2 

Movement  of  hogs  at  Chicago 


Year 

Receipts 

Shipments 

Year 

Receipts 

Shipments 

1858 

540,486 

392,864 

961,746 

1,693,158 

3,912,110 

192,013 
227,164 
482,875 
924,453 
1,582,643 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

1920 

7,059,555 
7,663,829 
8,109,064 
5,586,858 
7,526,120 

1,394,990 

1860 

1,985,700 
1,452,183 
1,202.390 
1,656,528 

1866 

1870 

1875 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  advent  of  the  refrigerator  car, 
about  1875,  had  a  marked  effect  on  the  proportionate  number  of  hogs 
shipped.  The  largest  number  of  hogs  received  at  Chicago  in  a  year 
was  in  1916,  when  9,188,224  head  were  received  at  the  yards  proper. 
If  receipts  by  outside  packing  firms  are  included,  the  figure  is  raised 
to  9,528,267.  The  highest  record  for  a  month  is  credited  to  January, 
1916,  when  1,227,508  hogs  were  received  at  the  yards  and  enough  by 
outside  packers  to  make  the  total  1,286,616.  The  record  week  was 
that  ending  January  8,  1916,  when  334,279  were  received  at  the  yards, 
and  356,362  in  all.  On  November  29,  1918,  the  largest  day's  receipts 
were  recorded,  the  figures  being  96,964  and  101,601  respectively. 

The  number  of  hogs  marketed  annually  varies  greatly.  This 
fluctuation  is  caused  partly  by  losses  from  disease,  and  partly  by  the 
fact  that  if  an  unexpected  or  temporary  demand  springs  up,  and  higher 
prices  rule,  great  numbers  of  hogs  of  inferior  size  and  weight  are 
rushed  to  market. 


1  Drovers  Journal  Year  Book  of  Figures  for  1922. 

^Compiled  from  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  An.  Rpt.,  1863,  p.  208;  Drovers  Journal 
Year  Books  of  Figures. 


354 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


Charges  for  commission,  yardage,  and  feed. — At  Chicago  the 
charge  for  the  yardage  of  hogs  is  11  cents  per  head.  Commission 
charges  for  selHng  hogs  are  as  follows:  Hogs  in  car  lots,  30  cents  per 
head;  single-deck  cars,  minimum  $13,  maximum  $16;  double-deck  cars, 
minimum  $20,  maximum  $27;  less  than  25  hogs  in  one  car,  50  cents 
per  head.  Public  inspection  of  hogs  costs  25  cents  per  car,  no  fee 
being  charged  on  cars  containing  less  than  25  head.  Corn  costs  $1.25 
per  bushel. 

Shrinkage  of  hogs  in  transit. — Hogs  usually  shrink  from  2.5  to 
4  per  cent  in  shipment  to  market.  ^  These  percentages  express  the 
difference  between  home  weights  and  selling  weights.  The  latter  in- 
clude the  "fill."     Hogs  shrink  less  than  cattle  or  sheep  in  shipment. 


Olauqht 


qhier 


Johipped  jor  olQUtjkter 


foOu  700  800  900 


Fig.  132. — Average  monthly  receipts  and  shipments  of  hogs  at  Chicago  in 
thousands  for  ten  years,  1909-1913  and  1917-1921.  The  years  1914-1916  were 
omitted  because  of  embargoes  on  shipments  during  much  of  that  period.  The  total 
length  of  each  bar  represents  average  monthly  receipts.  The  divisions  of  the  bar 
represent  the  average  number  of  Chicago  hogs  sold  monthly  for  local  slaughter  and 
for  shipment  to  other  points  for  slaughter.  The  average  number  shipped  monthly 
for  feeding  "  "  "  "-'  '       '  ■'-  •"-'-  -'---•^ 


too  small  to  be  shown  in  this  chart. 


The  fill. — Upon  arrival  in  the  pens  at  the  market,  hogs  are  given 
shelled  corn  and  water.  This  constitutes  the  "fill."  It  has  a  quieting 
effect,  improves  the  appearance  of  the  animals,  and  increases  the 
weight.    A  test  at  the  Kansas  City  market  is  reported  ^  in  which  44 


iWent.worth  and  Gentry:     Progressive  Hog  Raising,  1922,  p.  79. 
^Arthur  C.  Davenport:     The  American  Live  Stock  Market — How  It  Func- 
tions, p.  47. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  355 

cars  of  hogs  made  gains  ranging  from  290  to  1,380  pounds  per  car  and 
averaging  6.23  pounds  per  head  on  the  usual  fill  of  corn  and  water. 
This  was  the  increase  in  weight  as  shown  by  weighing  the  hogs  on  their 
arrival  at  the  yards  and  again  after  feeding  and  watering. 

Seasonal  variations  in  receipts  and  sale  of  hogs  at  Chicago. — Fig. 
132  shows  the  average  monthly  receipts  of  hogs  at  Chicago  for  ten 
years.  Largest  receipts  occur  in  November,  December,  January,  and 
February,  especially  in  December  and  January.  Smallest  receipts 
occur  in  August  and  September.  Over  twice  as  many  hogs  are  re- 
ceived in  January  as  in  September.  A  marked  rise  in  receipts  begins 
in  October  and  continues  into  February,  followed  by  a  decline  during 
late  February,  March,  and  April.  A  smaller  rise  occurs  in  May  and 
June,  followed  by  a  progressive  decline  during  July,  August,  and  Sep- 
tember. The  number  of  hogs  marketed  monthly  varies  much  more 
widely  than  that  of  cattle,  and  almost  as  much  as  that  of  sheep. 

The  large  winter  receipts  are  due  to  the  marketing  of  the  pig  crop 
of  the  previous  spring.  The  smaller  bulge  in  May  and  June  results 
from  the  marketing  of  considerable  numbers  of  hogs  that  were  farrowed 
in  the  previous  fall,  of  which  a  much  smaller  number  are  raised  than  of 
spring  pigs. 

The  chart  shows  that  most  of  the  hogs  received  in  each  month  at 
Chicago  are  slaughtered  there.  A  yearly  average  of  20  per  cent  are 
shipped  to  other  points  for  slaughter.  Less  than  one-fourth  of  1  per 
cent  are  shipped  for  feeding,  too  few  to  represent  graphically  in  the 
chart.     (Compare  this  chart  with  similar  charts  on  pages  81  and  242.) 

Weights  of  hogs  at  seven  markets. — There  is  considerable  differ- 
ence in  the  yearly  average  weights  of  the  hogs  received  at  various 
markets.  Omaha  and  Sioux  City  receive  heavier  hogs  than  Chicago, 
while  those  received  at  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  and  St.  Paul  average 
lighter:  1 

Yearly  average  weights  of  hags  at  seven  markets  for  eight  years 


1922   1921   1920   1919   1918   1917   1916   1915 


Eight-year 
average 


Omaha 256  257  246  245  249  238  221  251 

Sioux  City 259  252  246  251  248  225  231  246 

St.  Joseph 235  235  235  227  230  228  219  228 

Chicago 239  234  235  233  234  213  210  219 

St.  Paul 221  212  218  222  206  184  191  213 

Kansas  City 196  211  200  191  201  192  193  200 

St.  Louis 181  185  183  181  182  177  185  187 


245 
245 
230 
227 
208 
198 
183 


General  average 227  227  223  221  221  208  207  221 


219 


The  yearly  average  weight  of  market  hogs  varies  in  response  to 
the  relative  price  of  hogs  and  corn.     When  hogs  are  relatively  scarce 

1  Drovers  Journal  Year  Books  of  Figures. 


356  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

and  high  in  price,  and  corn  is  plentiful  and  cheap,  hog  growers  feed 
more  heavily  during  the  fattening  period,  feed  for  a  longer  period,  and 
send  their  hogs  to  market  at  a  greater  age  and  weight  and  carrying  a 
higher  finish  than  usual.  As  a  rule,  heavy  yearly  average  weights 
indicate  the  years  in  which  pork  production  was  most  profitable,  and 
vice  versa. 

Chicago  monthly  average  weights. — Following  are  the  monthly 
and  yearly  average  weights  of  hogs  received  at  Chicago  for  ten  years. 
The  highest  monthly  average  of  each  year  is  printed  in  bold  type  and 
the  lowest  monthly  average  is  enclosed  in  parenthesis.  At  the  right 
of  the  table  are  the  monthly  averages  and  the  general  average  for  the 
entire  ten-year  period  r^ 


Monthly  and  yearly  average  we 

ights  0 

/  hogs  at  Chicago  for  ten 

years 

Month 

1922 

1921 

1920 

1919 

1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

1914 

1913 

Ten-year 
average 

January 

f229) 

229 

229 

228 

(216)  (199) 

195 

223 

(216) 

226 

219.0 

February  

232 

230 

231 

232 

231 

204 

204 

224 

224 

230 

224.2 

March 

240 

238 

237 

230 

238 

209 

214 

231 

233 

240 

231.0 

April 

242 

237 

243 

230 

242 

213 

219 

233 

233 

242 

233.4 

May 

241 

238 

239 

232 

238 

217 

220 

233 

236 

242 

233.6 

June 

241 

238 

236 

233 

235 

225 

226 

231 

237 

244 

234.6 

July 

246 

240 

242 

242 

243 

232 

231 

238 

244 

243 

240.1 

August 

255 

251 

250 

251 

243 

233 

232 

246 

248 

233 

244.2 

September .... 

250 

250 

248 

254 

247 

231 

223 

235 

242 

222 

240.2 

October 

241 

235 

236 

237 

233 

212 

210 

204 

229 

209 

224.6 

November .... 

232 

(223) (224) 

226 

226 

209 

195 

fl87) 

218 

(207) 

(214.7) 

December .... 

233 

225 

228 

(224) 

223 

211 

(193) 

190 

226 

213 

216.6 

Yearly  average 

239 

234 

235 

233 

234 

213 

210 

219 

231 

228 

227.6 

In  seven  of  the  ten  years  and  in  the  ten-year  averages,  August 
weights  are  heaviest.  November  weights  average  lightest.  In  four 
years  the  lightest  averages  occured  in  January,  but  in  each  instance 
these  were  heavier  than  those  of  the  preceding  November.  December 
averages  were  lightest  in  two  years.  The  light  November  average  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  spring  pigs  then  first  appear  in  relatively  large 
numbers.  Heavy  weights  in  July,  August,  and  September  are  due  to 
the  holding  back  of  young  hogs  in  the  country  until  the  corn  crop  is 
matured  and  used  for  fattening.  Relatively  few  hogs  are  received 
during  August  and  September  but  the  receipts  include  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  aged  hogs  than  in  other  months,  the  result  of  marketing  brood 
sows  that  were  culled  and  fed  after  spring  litters  were  weaned.  The 
ten-year  averages  show  that  the  average  weight  of  market  hogs  rises 
from  November  to  April,  but  remains  almost  constant  during  April, 
May,  and  June.     Fall-farrowed  pigs  arrive  during  May  and  June  in 


^Compiled  from  Drovers  Journal  Year  Books  of  Figures, 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


357 


sufficient  numbers  to  prevent  an  appreciable  rise  in  weight  during 
those  months. 

Docking  or  shrinking  weights. — At  central  markets  stags  are 
docked  70  pounds,  and  pregnant  sows  40  pounds  each.  The  excuse 
for  this  practice  is  the  greater  amount  of  waste  in  killing  and  dressing 
such  hogs,  but  boars  are  not  docked.  Formerly  stags  were  docked  80 
pounds.  On  some  markets  small  pregnant  sows  are  docked  less  than 
40  pounds.  Small  stags  should  be  docked  less  than  70  pounds,  but 
are  not.  The  decision  as  to  what  hogs  are  stags  and  what  sows  are 
pregnant  rests  with  inspectors  employed  jointly  by  commission  men 
and  packers  who  inspect  the  hogs  as  they  are  driven  from  the  scales. 
All  dockage  is  deducted  from  the  gross  weight  of  the  drove,  which  is 
the  basis  of  payment  for  the  hogs. 


Fig.  133. — Unloading  hogs  at  Chicago. 


This  system  has  been  in  use  at  Chicago  since  1884,  and  is  the  result 
of  joint  agreement  between  hog  buyers  and  commission  firms.  *  In 
case  either  party  is  dissatisfied  with  the  amount  of  dockage,  he  may 
appeal  to  the  chief  inspector  or  shrinker  whose  decision  is  usually 
accepted  as  final.  If  it  is  not  accepted,  a  committee  composed  of  one 
buyer,  one  salesman,  and  a  third  party  selected  by  them,  renders  a 
decision  that  is  final. 

P.  H.  Hamilton,  of  Woodbury  County,  Iowa,  states  ^  that  hog 
dockage  was  probably  the  principal  reason  for  the  organization  of  live- 
stock exchanges  at  the  markets,  and  that  there  have  possibly  been 
more  wordy  battles  and  more  fistic  encounters  over  the  dockage  of 


iThe  American  Live  Stock  Market — How  It  Functions,  p.  54. 
2Breeder's  Gazette,  Jan.  27,  1921,  p.  155. 


358  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

hogs  than  over  any  other  one  thing  in  the  hog  trade.  He  states  that 
the  amount  of  trimming  necessary  to  remove  the  gristle  (shields)  on 
the  shoulders  and  belly  (sides)  of  the  stag  explains  the  dockage  of  stags. 
He  mentions  that  alfalfa,  grass,  and  soft  corn  will  make  even  barrows 
look  like  "pigg3^"  sows.  He  also  states,  "There  has  been  many  an 
instance  recorded  at  the  Sioux  City  market  where  the  buyer  has  got 
the  committee  on  hog  dockage  together,  and  lo  and  behold,  when  he 
returned  he  found  that  the  sows  in  dispute  had  farrowed  their  pigs." 

The  Pork- Packing  Industry 

During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Cincinnati  was  the 
leading  pork-packing  center  of  this  continent,  and  this  position  was 
maintained  until  1863,  at  which  time  Chicago  took  the  lead.  One  by 
one,  other  western  cities  have  crowded  ahead  of  Cincinnati  until  now 
her  rank  is  eleventh  in  the  list  of  American  hog-packing  centers.  That 
Cincinnati's  supremacy  was  not  a  permanent  one  was  due  to  the  fact 
that  until  the  West  was  settled,  live-stock  conditions  were  very  un- 
stable, and  the  logical  packing  center  in  1850  was  found  to  be  too  far 
to  the  east  of  the  center  of  hog  production  as  it  existed  twenty  years 
later.  With  the  settling  of  the  corn  belt  and  the  rapid  extension  of 
the  hog's  domain  to  the  westward,  Chicago  was  enabled,  by  virtue  of 
her  location  and  direct  railway  connections  with  the  heart  of  the  corn 
belt,  to  gain  and  hold  supremacy  as  a  pork-packing  center.  The  evolu- 
tion of  the  gigantic  pork-packing  business  of  the  United  States  may  be 
told  in  brief  by  first  reviewing  the  growth  and  development  of  the  busi- 
ness at  Cincinnati,  and  then  following  it  to  Chicago  at  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War. 

Early  packing  at  Cincinnati.  ^ — In  1833  Cincinnati  packed  85,000 
hogs.  Five  years  later  the  number  packed  in  the  year  had  risen  to 
182,000  head.  In  1843  no  less  than  250,000  hogs  were  consumed  by 
the  numerous  packing  establishments  then  doing  a  thriving  business  at 
Cincinnati,  and  the  town  was  dubbed  "Porkopolis,"  which  name  was 
formerly  in  general  use,  but  is  now  nearly  obsolete.  Cincinnati 
slaughtered  360,000  hogs  for  packing  purposes  in  1853,  and  in  1863  the 
highest  mark  was  reached,  the  number  that  year  being  608,457.  The 
demands  of  the  army  were  largely  accountable  for  the  large  number 
packed  during  the  last  mentioned  year.  The  average  price  of  hogs 
at  Cincinnati  was  $5.75  in  1855,  $6.21  in  1860,  and  $3.28  in  1862,  but 
the  Civil  War  caused  a  rise  to  $14.62  in  1865,  followed  by  a  decline  to 
$11.97  in  1866  and  to  $6.95  in  1867.    Present-day  pork  producers  who 


iH.  D.  Emery:  Hogs  and  Pork  Packing  in  the  West,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  An. 
Rpt.,  1863;  Charles  Cist:  The  Hog  and  Its  Products,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  An.  Rpt., 
1866. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  359 

experienced  a  similar  slump  in  prices  during  1920  and  1921  following 
the  World  War  can  testify  that  history  repeats  itself. 

In  early  times  Cincinnati  was  especially  favored  as  a  pork-packing 
center  because  of  its  shipping  facilities,  large  quantities  of  cured  pork 
being  shipped  to  southern  points  in  flat  boats  via  the  Ohio  and  Mis- 
sissippi rivers.  The  South  took  most  of  the  product,  though  New 
England  and  eastern  points  took  a  considerable  share.  Lard  was 
exported  to  the  West  Indies,  England,  and  France.  Cincinnati  was 
also  favored  in  that  prior  to  the  Civil  War  it  was  the  center  of  the 
finest  hog-raising  region  in  the  world,  including  the  states  of  Kentucky, 
Ohio,  and  Indiana.  It  was  in  this  favorable  environment  and  under 
the  stimulus  afforded  by  a  large,  near-by  market  that  the  Poland- 
China  breed  originated  during  the  period  mentioned.  Although 
Chicago  took  the  lead  in  the  number  of  hogs  packed  following  the  war, 
Cincinnati  continued  to  hold  first  place  for  a  considerable  time  so  far 
as  the  quality  of  hogs  packed  was  concerned.  In  1866  there  were  15 
slaughter  houses  at  Cincinnati,  some  of  which  employed  as  many  as 
100  hands.  One  concern  slaughtered  60,000  hogs  during  that  year. 
Measured  by  the  standards  of  the  time,  these  Cincinnati  packing  es- 
tablishments were  considered  to  be  gigantic  in  proportions.  In  1866 
Cincinnati  produced  180,000  barrels  of  pork,  25,000,000  pounds  of 
bacon,  and  16,500,000  pounds  of  lard. 

Development  of  packing  at  Chicago.^ — The  earliest  packing  or 
slaughtering  done  in  Chicago  was  in  1827;  in  that  year  Archibald 
Clyboum  erected  a  slaughter  house  for  the  special  purpose  of  supplying 
the  garrison  at  Fort  Dearborn.  The  trade  was  mostly  local  until  1833, 
when  immigration  set  westward  quite  strongly,  creating  a  larger  de- 
mand. During  1835,  Mr.  Clyboum  packed  about  3,000  hogs,  besides 
considerable  beef,  for  which  a  ready  market  was  at  hand.  This  stock 
had  to  be  picked  up  at  long  distances  from  Chicago  and  driven  on  foot 
to  the  city.  Other  men  soon  engaged  in  the  business  which  took  on 
larger  proportions,  the  surplus  product  finding  a  market  in  the  East. 
The  slaughter  houses  were  mostly  located  on  the  south  branch  of  the 
Chicago  river,  and  into  it  the  offal  and  filth  were  drained,  which  in 
later  years  became  a  nuisance  and  was  prohibited  by  the  city.  In  1863 
there  were  58  different  establishments  in  Chicago  doing  a  general  pack- 
ing business.  During  the  winter  of  1853-'54,  Chicago  packed  52,849 
hogs,  and  in  1860-'61  the  number  packed  was  231,335. 

During  the  winter  packing  season  of  1863-'64,  the  rank  of  the 
largest  packing  centers  and  the  number  of  hogs  packed  by  each  vvas  as 
follows:  (1)  Chicago,  904,159;  (2)  Cincinnati,  400,000;  (3)  St.  Louis, 
200,000;  (4)  Louisville,  103,996. 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  An.  Rpt.,  1863,  pp.  207-209. 


360  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

By-products  from  early  hog  packing. — The  Report  of  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  for  1866  contains  an  account  of  early  hog- 
packing  operations  which  is  of  interest  for  comparison  with  modern 
methods  of  utilizing  all  of  the  by-products  of  the  hog.  The  following, 
written  by  Charles  Cist,  of  Cincinnati,  appeared  in  the  report  for 
that  year: 

"I  have  referred  to  the  remarkable  fact,  that  there  was  a  period 
in  the  West  when  corn  would  not,  in  some  sections,  command  six  cents 
per  bushel,  and  in  others  was  of  so  little  value  as  to  be  substituted  for 
wood  as  fuel.  Not  less  extraordinary  is  the  fact,  within  the  knowledge 
of  hundreds  now  in  Cincinnati,  that  in  the  early  ages  of  pork  packing, 
say  in  1828,  there  was  so  little  demand  for  any  portion  of  the  hog,  other 
than  hams,  shoulders,  sides,  and  lard,  that  the  heads,  spare  ribs,  neck 
pieces,  backbone,  etc.,  were  regularly  thrown  into  the  Ohio  river  to  get 
rid  of  them !"  The  same  writer  also  says :  "The  slaughterers  formerly 
received  the  gut  fat  for  the  whole  of  the  labor  of  dressing,  wagoning  the 
hogs  more  than  a  mile  to  the  pork  houses  free  of  expense  to  the  owners. 
Every  year,  however,  adds  to  the  value  of  fat,  heart,  liver,  etc.,  for 
food  and  the  hoofs,  hair,  and  other  parts  for  manufacturing  purposes. 
Six  years  since,  from  10  to  25  cents  per  hog  was  paid  as  a  bonus  for  the 
privilege  of  killing.  This  was  later  raised  to  75  cents  and  even  to 
$1.00." 

In  1863,  hog-packing  products  consisted  of  bristles,  lard,  mess 
pork,  hams,  shoulders,  bacon,  and  lard  oil  used  for  making  candles. 
The  beginning  of  the  immense  packing-house  by-products  industry  of 
modern  times  was  described  by  an  early  writer  as  follows:^  "Since 
the  Chicago  river  has  ceased  to  be  the  sewer  for  all  the  offal  from  the 
slaughter  and  packing  houses,  the  owners  have  been  obliged  to  cart  it 
off  to  the  commons  and  open  fields  beyond  the  city  limits  at  a  very- 
heavy  expense  to  them.  An  enterprising  firm  has,  however,  contracted 
with  all  the  principal  firms  the  present  season  to  carry  it  all  away  by 
the  owners  paying  half  the  expenses.  Instead,  however,  of  carrying 
it  off  and  throwing  it  away,  they  have  commenced  preparing  it  for 
fertilizers.  They  have  provided  centrifugal  machines,  into  which  they 
place  the  refuse  from  the  lard  and  grease  tanks,  and  throw  out  all  the 
water,  leaving  only  the  solid  parts,  and  that  in  a  pulpy  or  pulverized 
condition.  In  this  way  they  will  prepare  about  3,000  tons  the  present 
season,  all  of  which  will  be  shipped  east  for  the  manufacture  of  com- 
mercial manures.  Another  concern  is  gathering  all  the  bones  it  can 
pick  up,  from  which  are  manufactured  large  quantities  of  animal  char- 
coal, and  such  as  are  not  suitable  for  that  purpose  are  ground  up  and 


iH.  D.  Emery:  Hogs  and  Pork  Packing  in  the  West,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  An. 
Rpt.,1863,p.  215. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  361 

sent  east,  they  having  shipped  the  past  season  over  300  tons  of  ground 
bones  alone." 

Present  leading  hog-packing  centers.— The  rank  of  the  leading 
hog-packing  centers  is  shown  in  the  following  table  compiled  from  the 
reports  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricultural  Economics: 

Number  of  hogs  packed  at  leading  points  for  three  years 

Market  1922  1921  1920 

1.  Chicago 6,322,682  5,977,213  5,869,592 

2.  Omaha 2,226,391  1,970,545  1,998,376 

3.  Kansas  City 2,052,229  1,712,843  1,838  080 

4.  St.  Paul 2,038,522  1,667,763  1,904  869 

5.  St.  Joseph 1,706,288  1,516,877  1,584  112 

6.  Indianapolis 1,527,566  1,376,543  1359  477 

7.  St.  Louis 1,228,784  1,288,730  1,678,'226 

8.  Sioux  City 1,193,624  1,047,431  1,295,790 

9.  Baltimore 1,019,499  1,013,051  873,663 

10.  New  York 1,091,099  902,370  755  243 

11.  Cincinnati 669,283  897,763  788  696 

12.  Cleveland 749,648  688,246  609  602 

13.  Buffalo 662,822  669,760  630,864 

14.  Jersey  City 458,430  509,185  629  382 

15.  Pittsburgh 506,866  504,792  412,911 

Totals 23,458,733    21,743,112    22,228,883 

A  total  of  28,736,660  hogs  were  slaughtered  at  68  points  in  1922. 
The  15  points  listed  above  slaughtered  82  per  cent  of  this  total, 

Chicago  packing  at  present  time.— The  number  of  hogs  packed  at 
Chicago  by  the  leading  hog-packing  firms  in  1920,  1921,  and  1922,  and 
the  total  number  packed  at  Chicago  in  each  of  these  years  were  as 
follows:^ 

Hogs  packed  by  Chicago  companies  for  three  years 

Company  1922  1921  1920 

Armour  &  Co 644,000  810,300  810,200 

Swift  &  Co 732,800  736,100  811,300 

Western  Packing  Co 684,300  697,400  520,500 

Morris  &  Co 711,500  583,200  516,100 

Wilson  &  Co 627,500  565,300  570,300 

Hammond  Co 365,800  392,500  409,500 

Anglo-American  Co 361,000  348,000  391,100 

Boyd,  Lunham  &  Co 326,800  353,300  362,400 

Independent  Packing  Co 346,600  281,300  252,000 

Roberts  &Oake 302,900  267,200  241,400 

Brennan  Packing  Co 306,000  194,700  201,500 

Miller  &  Hart 249,800  233,100  173,300 

Wm.  Davies  Co 158,000  143,200  223,100 

'All  others 903,295  710,096  695,058 

Totals 6,710,295      6,316,296      6,177,758 

>  Includes  hogs  packed  outside  the  Union  Stock  Yards. 

Growth  of  American  pork  packing. — The  pork-packing  year  ends 
March  1,  and  is  divided  into  two  seasons — the  summer  season  of  eight 
months,  from  March  1  to  November  1,  and  the  winter  season  of  four 
months,  from  November  1  to  March  1.     This  system  came  into  use 

'Drovers  Journal  Year  Book  of  Figures  for  1922,  p.  6. 


362  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

before  the  days  of  artificial  refrigeration,  and  although  such  a  designa- 
tion is  no  longer  necessary  it  is  still  adhered  to  by  statisticians.  Before 
1873  summer  packing  was  not  practiced,  but  it  began  in  September  of 
that  year  when  it  is  said  to  have  reached  the  number  of  505,500.  ^ 

Edward  N.  Wentworth  of  Armour  and  Company  has  shown  that 
the  ratio  between  winter  and  summer  packing  in  the  West  was  194  to 
100  in  1878-79  and  1879-'80;  that  about  1890  winter  and  summer 
slaughter  were  equalized;  and  that  since  1890  summer  slaughter  has 
increased  to  a  marked  degree.  In  1920-'21  and  1921-'22  the  ratio 
(winter  to  summer)  was  66  to  100.  ^ 

The  growth  of  pork  packing  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
since  1880  is  shown  by  the  following  figures  giving  the  total  number  of 
hogs  packed  for  the  twelve  months  ending  March  1 : ' 

Yearly  hog  packing  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 

Number  hogs  Number  hoga 

Year  packed  in  packed  in 

United  States  Canada 

1879-'80 14,829,000  195,379 

1884-'85 14,727,000  210,148 

1889-'90 18,906,000  238,709 

1894-'95 21,620,000  510,650 

1899-'00 28,172,000  1,491,000 

1904-'05 29,691,000  1,650,000 

1909-'10 29,923,000  1,250,000 

1914-'15. 34,245,000  2,598,000 

1919-'20 33,172,438  2,180,400 

1921-'22 30,076,901  1 ,549,674 

Exports  of  pork  products. — From  1907  to  1921  inclusive,  we  ex- 
ported 9.8  per  cent  of  our  total  pork  production  and  32  per  cent  of  our 
total  lard  production.  *  Pork  and  pork  products  comprised  85  per  cent 
of  the  total  quantity  of  our  exports  of  meat  and  meat  products  in  1920, 
and  87  per  cent  in  1921.  ^  The  United  States  was  the  leading  meat- 
exporting  country  during  the  three  pre-war  years  1911  to  1913,  and  we 
also  held  first  rank,  and  by  a  large  margin,  in  each  of  the  years  from 
1915  to  1920  inclusive.  ^  In  1920  we  contributed  over  46  per  cent  of 
the  meat  and  meat  products  exported  by  all  countries.  ^  Our  natural 
advantages  for  hog  raising  and  our  vast  production  of  pork  in  excess 
of  our  own  needs  give  us  our  supremacy  in  the  meat  export  trade. 

The  development  of  our  export  trade  in  pork  since  1790  is  shown 
by  the  following  figures:  ^ 

•    lU.  S.  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.  Bui.  47,  p.  256. 

2  Monthly  Letter  to  Animal  Husbandmen,  Armour's  Livestock  Bureau,  Chicago, 
Jan.  1,  1923. 

3 Compiled  from  Price  Current-Grain  Reporter  Year  Books. 

4 Wentworth  and  Gentry:     Progressive  Hog  Raising,  p.  56. 

6U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  683. 

«U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbooks— 1920,  pp.  719,  720;  1921,  p.  682. 

7U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  682. 

*  George  M.  Rommel:  The  Hog  Industry,  U.  S.  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.  Bui.  47, 
pp.  263-265;  figures  since  1900  from  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbooks. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


363 


Exports  of  hogs;  bacon,  hams,  and  shoulders;  pork;  and  lard  from  the  United  States 

Live  hogs         Bacon,  hams,  Pork  Lard 

Fiscal                                                                               Thousand        and  shoulders  Thousand  Million 

year                                                                                     head           Million  pounds  barrels  pounds 

1790 5        ( M  24  ( 1 ) 

1800 14        1  55  2 

1820 4        1  44  3 

1840 5        2  66  7 

1860 48       26  205  40 

Million  pounck 

1880 83       760  96  375 

1900 51       709  168  662 

1910 4       299  45  363 

1915 8       550  54  476 

Calendar  year 

1919 25      1,787  67  761 

1920 55       822  79  612 

1  254,000  pounds  bacon,  hams,  and  shoulders;  356,000  pounds  lard. 


Following  are  the  quantities  and  values  of  pork  and  pork  products 
exported  from  the  United  States  during  the  calendar  year  1922:  ^ 

Pork  exports  of  the  United  States  for  the  calendar  year  1922 

Pork  products  Pounds  Value 

Bacon 341,838,745  $51,989,095 

Hams  and  shoulders 289,613,175  57,070,244 

Pork,  canned 2,563,298  824,832 

Pork,  fresh 26,974,147  4,308,006 

Pork,  pickled 38,628,919  4,648,175 

Lard 766,950,103  91,484,669 

Lard  compounds 16,286,169  1,952,187 

9,704,432  2,806,048 

casings 24,355,037  5,646,842 

Totals 1,516,914,025     220,730,098 


The  destination  of  our  principal  pork  exports  and  the  total  pur- 
chases of  these  by  the  various  countries  are  shown  below:  ^ 

Destination  of  principal  pork  products  exported  from  the  United  States  in  1920 


Bacon 
Million 
pounds 

Hams  and 
shoulders 
Million 
pounds 

Pickled 

MUUon 
pounds 

Lard 
Million 
pounds 

Total 

Country 

MUlion 
pounds 

Per 
cent 

1.  United  Kingdom .... 

2.  Germany 

345 
76 
62 
21 
25 
35 
12 
19 
17 

'  25 

116 

■  Ve 

26 
7 
6 
3 

'  11 

"5' 

■i5' 
■i9' 

129 
128 
91 
66 
49 
55 
13 
23 
5 
17 
36 

590 

204 

153 

108 

100 

97 

46 

45 

22 

17 

91 

40 
14 

3.  Netherlands 

4.  Cuba 

10 

7 

7 

6.     Belgium 

7 

7.     Canada 

3 

8.     Italy        

3 

9.     Sweden      

2 

10.     Mexico        

1 

Other  countries 

6 

Totals 

637 

185 

39 

612 

1,473 

100 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Comm.  Rpt.,  Dec,  1922,  Pt.  I,  pp,  4-8. 

*  Compiled  from  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  pp.  758,  759. 


364  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

The  United  Kingdom  purchased  54  per  cent  of  our  bacon  exports 
in  1920,  63  per  cent  of  the  hams  and  shoulders,  and  21  per  cent  of  the 
lard.  Germany  bought  21  per  cent  of  our  lard  exports  and  12  per  cent 
of  our  bacon  exports.  Canada  bought  40  per  cent  of  our  exports  of 
pickled  pork. 

Other  countries  which  use  considerable  quantities  of  our  pork  prod- 
ucts are  British  Guiana,  Denmark,  Ecuador,  Haiti,  Newfoundland 
and  Labrador,  Norway,  Peru,  and  Switzerland.  A  complete  list  in- 
cludes others  as  well.  Some  countries  buy  only  casings  for  sausage 
making,  but  many  countries  pay  tribute  to  the  American  hog  in  one 
form  or  another. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

MARKET  CLASSIFICATION  OF  HOGS 

The  hog  markets  and  the  newspapers  reporting  the  markets 
recognize  certain  rather  well-defined  market  classes  of  hogs.  The 
classification  of  a  hog  or  of  a  carload  of  hogs  depends  upon  the  use 
to  which  it  is  best  adapted;  and  the  use  to  which  it  is  best  adapted  is 
determined  by  its  weight,  form,  quality,  condition,  and  sex.  The 
market  classes  of  hogs  and  their  respective  weights  are  as  follows: 

Classes  Weights 

PRIME  HEAVY  HOGS 300-400  pounds  and  up 

BUTCHER  HOGS: 

Heavy  butchers 250-300  pounds 

Medium  butchers 220-250  pounds 

Light  butchers 190-220  pounds 

PACKING  HOGS: 

Heavy  packing 300-500  pounds  and  up 

Medium  packing 250-300  pounds 

Light  packing 190-250  pounds 

Heavy  mixed  packing 300  pounds  up 

Light  mixed  packing 300  pounds  down 

LIGHT  HOGS: 

Bacon  hogs 160-200  pounds 

Yorkers 150-190  pounds 

Light  lights 130-150  pounds 

Light  mixed 200  pounds  down 

PIGS 50-130  pounds 

FEEDER  PIGS 50-150  pounds 

ROUGHS 

STAGS 

BOARS 

MISCELLANEOUS: 

Roasting  pigs 15-30  pounds 

Governments 

Cripples 

Dead  hogs 

The  weight  limits  of  the  various  classes  are  flexible  and  are  varied 
somewhat  at  different  markets  depending  upon  the  weights  of  the  hogs 
received.  The  weight  limits  are  also  varied  to  some  degree  on  all 
markets  depending  upon  supply  and  demand  and  upon  the  weights  of 
the  hogs  marketed  in  different  seasons  and  in  different  years.  The 
weights  given  above  are  fairly  representative  of  average  market  condi- 
tions. 

The  grades. — The  hogs  within  a  market  class  may  be  graded 
according  to  their  relative  value  per  cwt.     The  grades  are  (1)  prime, 

366 


366 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


(2)  choice,  (3)  good,  (4)  medium,  and  (5)  common.  Not  all  of  these 
grades  may  be  found  in  some  of  the  classes.  For  example,  light  hogs 
and  pigs  would  not  grade  higher  than  choice,  and  packing  hogs  would 
not  grade  higher  than  good.  As  will  be  shown  later,  there  is  very 
little  spread  in  price  within  each  market  class  of  hogs;  in  fact  there  is 
so  little  spread  in  price  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  grading  market 
hogs.  For  that  reason  no  mention  is  made  of  the  grades  except  in 
this  paragraph.  Grades  are  of  very  little  or  no  practical  importance 
in  the  hog  market.  ^ 

Prime  Heavy  Hogs 

These  are  heavy,  finished  hogs  of  good  quality,  usually  barrows, 
which  weigh  over  300  pounds.     In  the  early  days  of  the  packing 


Fig.  134.  -Trime  heavy  hogs. 

industry  a  premium  was  paid  for  hogs  of  this  class  because  they  were 
in  special  demand  for  the  manufacture  of  clear  ^  and  mess  pork.  Later, 
when  the  trade  in  fresh  pork  and  bacon  was  developed  and  when  smaller 
hams  and  shoulders  came  into  demand,  prime  heavy  hogs  no  longer 
commanded  a  premium.  For  a  number  of  years  past  they  have  sold 
at  lower  prices  than  butcher  and  light  hogs.  Very  few  are  received  at 
the  markets  because  they  sell  at  lower  prices  than  younger  and  lighter- 
weight  hogs,  cost  more  to  produce  per  cwt.,  and  are  consequently  less 
profitable  to  the  producer.  They  yield  a  heavy  loin  carcass  (described 
in  Chapter  XXIV)  and  such  carcasses  are  frequently  made  into  the 
same  products  as  packing  hog  carcasses.  Prime  heavy  hogs  sell  at 
about  the  same  price  as  the  best  packing  hogs  of  the  same  weight. 


iFor  definitions  of  class  and  grade,  see  page  119. 
2  Cured  sides  from  which  the  ribs  were  removed. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


367 


Their  dressing  percentage  ^  averages  82  to  84  when  dressed  shipper 
style,  and  74  to  76  dressed  packer  style.  ^ 

Butcher  Hogs 

This  is  one  of  the  most  numerous  classes  of  hogs  on  the  markets 
of  the  United  States  and  is  the  class  which  ordinarily  returns  the 
greatest  profit  to  the  corn-belt  pork  producer.  Butcher  hogs  are  the 
best  lard-type  hogs  on  the  market  weighing  from  190  to  300  pounds. 
They  must  be  good  in  form,  quality,  and  condition,  as  previously 
described  in  Chapter  XXII.  It  is  especially  important  that  they  be 
symmetrical  and  smooth  in  form,  free  from  paunchiness,  free  from 
coarseness,  and  thick,  firm,  and  smooth  in  their  covering  of  flesh. 


Fig.  135. — Heavy  butcher  hogs. 

They  are  principally  barrows,  though  a  number  of  good,  young,  clear 
(not  seedy)  sows  are  included.  Sows  are  less  numerous  than  barrows 
in  this  class  because  good  young  sows  are  usually  kept  on  the  farm  for 
breeding  purposes,  and  old  sows  and  inferior  young  sows  cannot  class 
as  butcher  hogs.  Butcher  hogs  yield  light  loin  carcasses  and  shipper 
carcasses.  The  loins  of  butcher  hogs  are  of  the  best  size  and  quality 
for  the  fresh  meat  trade,  the  hams  and  shoulders  are  of  the  best  size, 
shape,  and  quality  for  the  trade  in  smoked  meats,  the  yield  of  lard  is 
high  and  of  first-class  quality,  and  the  bellies  of  light  butcher  hogs  are 
usually  suitable  for  bacon.     Shipper-dressed  butcher  hogs  usually  yield 


^The  dressing  percentages  given  in  this  chapter  are  those  obtained  by  W.  W. 
Smith  of  Purdue  University  from  Wilson  and  Company  of  Chicago  and  published  in 
Pork  Production,  pp.  371-374. 

2  These  two  styles  of  dressing  are  described  in  Chapter  XXIV. 


368  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

77  to  82  per  cent  of  carcass  to  live  weight,  and  when  packer  dressed 
69  to  74  per  cent,  varying  according  to  form  and  finish. 

Butcher  hogs  are  divided  into  heavy  weights,  medium  weights, 
and  Hght  weights.  These  divisions  include  hogs  that  are  essentially 
alike  except  as  to  age  and  weight.  The  older  and  heavier  butcher  hogs 
also  average  somewhat  higher  in  condition  and  average  about  2  per 
cent  higher  in  dressing  yield  than  the  medium  weights,  and  the  latter 
average  about  1  per  cent  higher  than  light  butcher  hogs. 

Packing  Hogs 

Packing  hogs  are  inferior  hogs  weighing  from  190  pounds  up. 
Most  of  them  are  sows  which  have  been  used  as  breeders,  but  the  class 
also  includes  coarse,  unfinished  barrows  and  the  best  stags.     Sows 


Fig.  136. — Medium-weight  butcher  hogs. 

which  show  indications  of  pregnancy  sell  with  a  dockage  of  40  pounds. 
Roughs,  coarse  stags,  and  boars  are  not  included  in  the  packing  class, 
but  sell  separately  and  at  lower  prices.  The  best  packing  hogs  yield 
loins  which  are  used  in  the  fresh  meat  trade,  but  the  sides  (including 
the  loins)  of  most  packing  hogs  are  used  for  mess  pork,  barreled  pork, 
and  dry-salt  meats,  and  the  hams  and  shoulders  are  sweet  pickled  and 
may  be  smoked,  but  are  not  of  the  best  quality  and  are  not  sold  under 
the  best  packer  brands.  The  best  use  of  packing  hogs  requires  the 
manufacture  of  a  larger  proportion  of  salted  and  pickled  products  than 
is  true  of  any  other  class  of  hogs.  This  class  is  therefore  of  particular 
interest  to  packers  who  supply  the  trade  in  the  cheaper  kinds  of  cured 
meats,  and  the  name  "packing  hogs"  is  therefore  given  to  this  class. 
They  dress  from  77  to  83  per  cent  shipper  style,  and  69  to  75  per  cent 
packer  style. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  369 

Packing  hogs  are  divided  according  to  weight  into  heavy  weights, 
medium  weights,  and  hght  weights.  In  addition  to  these,  many  loads 
of  hogs  are  received  at  the  markets  which  contain  a  mixture  of  various 
classes  of  hogs,  including  a  considerable  percentage  of  packing  hogs. 
Such  loads  are  called  "mixed  packers."  These  make  up  a  large  share 
of  total  receipts  of  hogs  at  all  of  the  large  market  centers.  Such  loads 
are  usually  received  from  country  hog  buyers  and  local  shipping  as- 
sociations, and  their  mixed  character  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  load  is 
composed  of  small  lots  of  hogs  from  a  number  of  farms.  Mixed  loads 
may  include  nearly  all  classes.  There  may  be  some  butcher  hogs  and 
some  good  light  hogs  in  the  load,  but  the  proportion  of  old  sows,  stags, 
etc,  is  usually  sufficient  to  give  a  rather  high  average  weight  and  a 
very  uneven  and  mixed  appearance.  Mixed  loads  may  sell  to  the 
packer  without  sorting,  in  which  case  the  sorting  is  done  after  slaughter- 
ing and  dressing,  but  it  is  principally  mixed  packirg  hogs  that  furnish 


a  field  for  operation  to  the  specfulator.  He  buys  several  carloads,  sorts 
them  into  the  various  classes,  and  resells  them  to  various  classes  of 
buyers.  Loads  of  mixed  hogs  averaging  above  300  pounds  are  classed 
as  heavy  mixed  packing,  and  those  averaging  below  300  pounds  are 
classed  as  light  mixed  packing.  Mixed  loads  of  about  the  same  average 
weights  may  differ  considerably  in  price  because  of  the  difference  in 
the  number  of  good  hogs  included  in  each  load,  and  for  this  reason 
some  market  reports  do  not  quote  prices  on  mixed  loads. 

Light  Hogs 

This  class  includes  all  hogs  weighing  from  130  to  190  pounds, 
except  roughs,  stags,  and  boars,  and  in  addition  it  includes  hogs  of 
bacon  type  weighing  up  to  200  pounds.  Light  hogs  constitute  a  general 
class  which  embraces  the  bacon,  yorker,  light  light,  and  light  mixed 
classes.  Although  very  similar  in  weight,  these  classes  differ  consider- 
ably in  form,  quality,  and  condition  and  the  carcasses  are  adapted  to 
different  uses. 


370 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


Bacon  hogs. — The  kind  of  a  hog  that  is  an  ideal  market  bacon  hog 
was  described  in  Chapter  XXIII.  Such  a  hog  is  usually  of  Yorkshire 
or  Tamworth  breeding,  and  very  few  of  these  are  produced  in  the 
United  States.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  received  at  the  St.  Paul 
market,  the  stock  yards  of  this  country  receive  practically  no  hogs  of 
true  bacon  type.  Nevertheless  many  light  hogs  of  lard-type  breeding 
are  received  which  show  a  tendency  toward  the  bacon  type;  they  are 
of  stretchy  form,  fairly  long,  deep,  and  smooth  in  their  sides,  good  in 
quality,  and,  as  compared  to  butcher  hogs,  they  carry  only  moderate 
finish.  They  are  sorted  out  of  the  general  run  of  light  hogs,  are  sold 
as  bacon  hogs,  and  are  used  for  the  production  of  breakfast-bacon 
bellies  and  English  meats.  ^     Bacon  hogs  are  sometimes  referred  to  in 


•  j 

1 

.  ■•'■  '  si 

■1 

J^^^HH 

'"■:■■■     '^ 

w 

1 

b 

^^^T-                                       ■  ■  "^^<i^^P^^- 

t" 

^B!m   •:'^'^~  •■-■  \  ■"    '•^^^^^^^" 

._^J\'. 

^j 

■L/  'K-..               -  .^^^^J^ 

'^^  ■ 

W^^^^  -  ■ .  ^ijJI^iv, .  j^>5><;^..^  ..1^ 

^^^^m^^^^^k. 

ij0^ 

Fig.  138.— Packing  sow. 

market  reports  as  "singeing  hogs,"  so  called  because  in  dressing  the 
hair  is  sometimes  removed  by  singeing  instead  of  scraping.  Bacon 
hogs  dress  from  76  to  77  per  cent  shipper  style  and  68  to  69  per  cent 
packer  style. 

Yorkers  are  the  result  of  a  sort  of  light  hog  receipts  and  include 
all  hogs  weighing  150  to  190  pounds  which  are  of  good  quality  and 
reasonably  good  finish,  exclusive  of  bacon  hogs.  Yorkers  receive  their 
name  from  the  fact  that  they  are  commonly  shipped  to  New  York  and 
other  eastern  markets  where  they  are  in  extensive  demand  for  fresh 
meat  purposes  and  for  the  production  of  "home  packed"  meats.  ^    If 


1  English  meats  are  described  in  Chapter  XXIV, 
2111.  Bui.  147,  p.  261. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  371 

carried  to  greater  weights  and  higher  finish  they  would  class  as  butcher 
hogs.  They  are  too  fat,  too  short  of  body,  or  are  otherwise  not  adapted 
for  bacon  use,  and  do  not  have  the  size,  weight,  and  finish  required  of 
butcher  hogs.  They  dress  from  75  to  76  per  cent  shipper  style,  and  67 
to  68  per  cent  packer  style.  In  recent  years  the  demand  for  yorkers 
has  increased  to  a  marked  degree  and  the  class  is  now  one  of  consider- 
able importance. 

Light  lights  are  of  lighter  weights  than  any  of  the  preceding  classes, 
ranging  from  130  to  150  pounds.  They  are  called  "light  lights"  be- 
cause they  are  the  lightest  class  of  light  hogs.  The  St.  Paul  market 
and  some  other  markets  call  them  "light  yorkers,"  and  do  not  include 
light  lights  in  their  market  classification.  They  are  also  sometimes 
referred  to  as  "heavy  pigs."  They  are  used  principally  for  the  fresh 
meat  trade.  They  dress  74  to  75  per  cent  shipper  style,  and  66  to  67 
per  cent  packer  style. 

Light  mixed  are  mixed  loads  of  light  hogs  ranging  from  200  pounds 
downward.  They  often  include  a  varying  number  of  pigs.  Many 
such  loads  sell  to  packers  without  sorting,  and  other  loads  containing 
a  considerable  number  of  bacon  hogs,  yorkers,  and  feeder  pigs  may  be 
sold  to  speculators  who  sort  and  resell.  It  should  be  understood  that 
there  are  hogs  (other  than  roughs  and  boars)  of  yorker  and  bacon 
weights  which  for  one  reason  or  another  cannot  be  classed  as  yorkers 
or  bacon  hogs.  Such  light  hogs  are  coarse,  poor  in  condition,  and 
decidedly  on  the  plain  and  common  order.  No  special  class  is  provided 
for  them.  They  comprise  a  varying  proportion  of  mixed  loads  of  pack- 
ing and  light  hogs  sold  to  packer  buyers,  and  their  carcasses  are  classed 
as  packing  carcasses,  though  hogs  of  these  weights  are  not  classed  as 
packing  hogs  on  the  live-stock  markets.  ^ 

Pigs 

Pigs,  as  they  are  considered  on  the  market,  range  in  weight  from 
50  to  130  pounds.  All  pigs  within  these  limits  bought  for  slaughter 
classify  here.  They  are  used  principally  to  supply  the  demand  from 
the  cheaper  restaurants  and  lunch  counters,  and  are  in  greatest  demand 
in  winter,  being  hard  to  preserve  fresh  in  summer  and  too  young  to 
cure.     They  ordinarily  dress  68  to  74  per  cent  shipper  style. 

Feeder  Pigs 

Prior  to  1914  federal  regulations  prevented  the  shipment  of  hogs 
from  public  stock  yards  for  any  purpose  except  immediate  slaughter,  ^ 

'As  stated  in  Chapter  XXIV,  light  packing  carcasses  range  downward  in  weight 
to  100  pounds. 

^Arthur  C.  Davenport:  The  American  Live  Stock  Market — How  It  Func- 
tions, p.  81. 


372  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

but  the  prevention  of  hog  cholera  by  the  use  of  the  serum  treatment 
has  made  possible  an  extensive  trade  in  feeder  pigs  during  recent  years. 
At  most  market  centers  there  are  dealers  or  traders  who  buy,  vaccinate, 
and  sell  feeder  pigs.  Federal  regulations  require  inspection,  vaccina- 
tion, and  either  spraying  or  dipping  in  disinfectant  prior  to  shipment 
from  the  yards. 

The  principal  markets  for  feeder  pigs  are  Kansas  City,  St.  Paul, 
St.  Louis,  and  Fort  Worth.  The  following  table  ^  gives  the  shipments 
from  the  ten  leading  feeder  pig  markets  and  the  total  shipments  from 
68  markets  during  seven  years: 

Shipments  of  feeder  pigs  (in  thousands)  from  leading  markets  in  seven  years 

Market  1922     1921     1920    1919    1918    .1917     1916 

1.  Kansas  City 162  94  200  244  175  18  22 

2.  St.  Paul 109  104  161  103  173  232  23 

3.  St.  Louis 63  44  47  98  77  12  13 

4.  Fort  Worth 34  53  24  55  

5.  Denver 26  22  30  32  17  22  9 

6.  Wichita 20  13  23  20  87  44  6 

7.  Indianapolis 17  21  17  41  45  35  (None) 

8.  Sioux  City 9  19  28  33  41  109  8 

9.  Oklahoma  City 8  13  21  43  68  70  18 

10.  St.  Joseph 11  9  23  27  34  33  11 

Sixty-eight  markets..  ..     593         499         728         902         989         788         194 

Chicago,  with  3,060  feeder  pigs  shipped,  ranked  25th  as  a  feeder 
pig  market  in  1922.     Omaha  with  5,597  ranked  17th. 

Feeder  pigs  weigh  from  50  to  150  pounds,  with  weights  from  90 
to  120  pounds  most  desired,  and  must  be  in  thrifty,  growing  condition, 
but  not  fat.  They  should  show  quality  and  evidence  of  good  breeding, 
and  should  be  as  uniform  as  possible  in  size  and  appearance. 

Roughs 

In  this  class  we  find  hogs  of  all  sizes  that  are  very  coarse,  rough, 
and  lacking  in  condition.  They  are  sometimes  called  "throw  outs." 
The  pork  from  these  hogs  is  used  for  the  cheaper  class  of  trade  for  both 
packing  and  fresh  meat  purposes.  They  are  frequently  quoted  in 
market  reports  as  "rough  packing  hogs." 

Stags 

Stags  are  hogs  that  at  one  time  were  boars  beyond  the  pig  stage 
and  were  castrated.  They  sell  with  a  dockage  of  70  pounds.  If  they 
are  of  good  quality  and  condition  and  do  not  show  too  much  stagginess, 
they  are  included  in  the  various  classes  of  packing  hogs.  When  they 
are  too  coarse  and  staggy  in  appearance  they  are  sold  separately  and 
at  lower  prices. 

1  Compiled  from  Drovers  Journal  Year  Book  of  Figures  for  1922;  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  pp.  715,  727. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  373 

Boars 

Boars  are  always  sold  in  a  class  by  themselves  and  bring  a  much 
lower  price  than  the  best  hogs  on  the  market  at  the  same  time.  They 
sell  without  dockage  but  at  a  lower  price  than  stags.  The  pork  is 
used  to  supply  the  cheaper  class  of  trade  and  also  for  making  sausage. 
Boars  are  not  usually  marketed  until  their  days  of  breeding  service  are 
over  and  they  are  old  and  coarse.  Many  of  them  are  condemned  by 
government  inspectors  because  of  sexual  odor.  They  then  bring  only 
fertilizer  price.  It  is  usually  more  profitable  to  castrate  boars,  feed 
them  for  a  time,  and  send  them  to  m^arket  as  stags  rather  than  as  boars. 

Miscellaneous 

Roasting  pigs  are  suckling  pigs  that  weigh  from  15  to  30  pounds. 
They  come  to  market  in  small  numbers  and  only  during  holiday  seasons. 
They  are  taken  direct  from  their  dams,  dressed  with  head  and  feet  on, 
and  served  like  spring  chickens  or  turkeys.     The  price  varies  greatly. 

Governments. — Before  hogs  are  allowed  to  pass  over  the  scales  to 
be  weighed  out  to  the  packer,  speculator,  shipper,  or  anyone  else  who 
may  choose  to  buy  them,  they  must  first  pass  the  scrutiny  of  a  govern- 
ment inspector.  All  hogs  not  considered  healthy  in  every  respect  are 
tagged  by  this  inspector  and  retained  for  further  examination.  Preg- 
nant sows  which  appear  to  be  within  a  few  days  of  farrowing,  hogs 
with  bunches,  abscesses,  etc.,  also  hogs  with  cuts  on  the  hams  and 
shoulders  are  retained.  These  are  called  "governments."  They  are 
usually  bought  by  a  local  dealer  and  taken  to  one  of  the  smaller  packing 
houses  where  they  are  slaughtered  under  the  supervision  of  an  inspector. 
If  found  to  be  affected  so  as  to  make  the  flesh  unfit  for  human  food, 
they  are  condemned  and  tanked.  The  tank  is  a  large  steam-tight 
receptacle,  like  a  steam  boiler,  in  which  the  carcass  is  converted  into 
grease  and  fertilizer. 

Cripples  are  hogs  that  are  not  able  to  walk  and  must  be  hauled  to 
the  packing  plant  in  "cripple  carts."  ^  Weakness  of  pasterns,  feet,  and 
legs  is  a  common  fault  in  lard  hogs,  especially  in  those  heavily  fattened 
on  corn  not  properly  supplemented  with  feeds  containing  the  proteins, 
minerals,  and  vitamines  needed  to  balance  the  ration.  Lack  of  exercise 
is  another  cause.  Overcrowding  of  cars  and  loading  and  unloading 
too  hurriedly  often  cause  crippling.  On  the  market  there  are  far 
more  cripples  among  hogs  than  among  any  other  kind  of  stock. 
Crippled  hogs  sell  for  fully  a  dollar  less  per  cwt.  than  they  would  have 
otherwise  brought. 

Dead  hogs  are  hogs  that  died  in  transit  due  to  overheat,  rough 
handling,   over-feeding  in  hot  weather  before  shipping,   and  other 


1  These  are  two-wheeled,  low-hung  carts  pulled  by  one  horse. 


374 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


causes.  They  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  grease,  soap,  and  fer- 
tilizer. If  they  weigh  100  pounds  or  over,  they  bring  the  fertilizer 
price.  If  they  weigh  less,  they  are  held  in  payment  of  the  cost  of 
handling  and  the  shipper  gets  no  return.  Actual  count  of  dead  stock 
removed  from  cars  at  Chicago,  as  made  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  for  a  period  of  two  years,  showed  the  number  to  be  1  out  of 
2,500  cattle,  1  out  of  164  calves,  1  out  of  526  sheep,  and  1  out  of  244 
hogs.  ^ 

Summary. — The  accompanying  chart  indicates  the  relationship  of 
the  various  market  classes  of  hogs  as  based  on  the  factors  of  weight 
and  quality.     Beginning  at  50  pounds,  the  minimum  weight  for  pigs, 


Weight! 


Hogs   of   good   quality 


Hogs   of    inferior   quality 
or  mixed 


Prime  heavy  hogs 

Heavy 
packing 

Heavy  mixed 
packing 

CO 

§ 
pq 

m 

00 
03 

+-= 

CO 
CO 

fi 

QO 

o 

« 

Heavy  butchers 

Medium 
packing 

Light  mixed 
packing 

Medium  butchers 

Light 
packing 

Light  butchers 

Bacon 
hogs 

t  mixed 

Yorkers 

Ligh 

Feeder 
pigs 

Light  light 

Pigs 

250 

220 
200 
l^'O 

160 
150 


50 
Fig.  139. — Classification   of  market  hogs  according  to  quality  and  weight. 

there  is  a  continuous  succession  of  classes  to  which  good  hogs  are 
eligible,  ranging  upward  to  the  heaviest  weights.  Hogs  of  these  classes 
may  be  received  and  sold  in  straight  carloads,  they  may  be  sorted  out 
of  mixed  loads  purchased  by  traders,  or  they  may  be  included  in  the 
mixed  loads  sold  to  local  packers.  Straight  or  sorted  loads  of  good 
hogs  are  most  frequently  sold  for  shipment  to  other  points  for  slaughter 
or  for  feeding.  Hogs  sold  to  order  buyers  for  shipment  to  other  points 
for  slaughter  are  referred  to  in  some  market  reports  as  "shippers,"  but 
this  is  an  indefinite  term,  as  the  hogs  in  demand  for  shipping  may  be 
of  several  market  classes. 


lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Rpt.  113,  p.  35. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  375 

Inferior  hogs  include  packing  hogs,  Hght  hogs,  roughs,  stags,  and 
boars.  There  is  little  incentive  to  make  sorts  of  inferior  hogs.  What 
sorting  of  them  is  done  is  usually  incidental  to  the  sorting  out  of  good 
hogs  (the  inferior  ones  remaining),  or  results  from  throwing  out  a  few 
inferior  hogs  present  in  otherwise  good  loads.  They  are  not  so  fre- 
quently shipped  as  are  good  hogs;  they  sell  largely  to  local  packer 
buyers. 

Hog  Prices  at  Chicago 

Chicago  prices  during  1922. — The  following  prices  are  available 
showing  the  range  in  price  and  average  price  of  hogs  of  different  weights 
at  Chicago  in  1922:1 

Average 
Class  Range  in  price  [irice 

Packing  and  butcher  hogs,  255-400  lbs $5.25-11.20  $9.05 

Mixed  hogs,  195-255  lbs 5.90-11.45  9.30 

Light  mixed  hogs,  135-195  lbs 6.75-11.50  9.60 

All  classes  except  pigs 9.20 

Pigs 9.15 

Chicago  and  Kansas  City  prices  in  1921. — Following  is  a  more 
detailed  list  of  prices  at  Chicago  and  Kansas  City  during  1921:  ^ 

Chicago  Kansas  City 

Class  yearly  yearly 

average  average 

Heavy-weight  hogs,  251  lbs.  up $8.54  $8.08 

Medium-weight  hogs,  201-250  lbs 8.84  8.35 

Light-weight  hogs,  151-200  lbs 8.99  8.37 

Light-light  hogs,  130-150  lbs 8.92  8.31 

Smooth  packing  sows,  250  lbs.  up 7.74  7.09 

Rough  packing  sows,  200  lbs.  up 7.28  6.52 

Pigs,  130  lbs.  down 8.68                  

Feeder  pigs,  130  lbs.  down 8.26 

Bulk  of  sales 8.54  8.35 

Top  price  for  the  year 11.85  11.30 

Market  values  of  the  various  classes. — No  detailed  records  are 
kept  of  the  average  prices  made  by  the  various  market  classes  of  hogs 
on  the  Chicago  market.  The  following  table  gives  the  yearly  average 
weights  and  yearly  average  prices  of  hogs  marketed  at  Chicago  from 
1913  to  1922,  and  also  the  averages  for  the  entire  ten-year  period :  ^ 

1  Drovers  Journal  Year  Book  of  Figures  for  1922. 
2U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  pp.  724,  725. 
3  Compiled  from  Drovers  Journal  Year  Books  of  Figures. 


376 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


Average  weights  and  prices  for  hogs  at  Chicago  for  ten 

years 

Year 

Averape 
weight 
Pounds 

Packing  and 
butcher  hogs 
255-400    lbs. 

Mixed  hogs 
195-255  lbs. 

Light 
mixed  hogs 
135-195  lbs. 

All  classes 
except   pigs 

Pigs 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916         

228 
231 
219 
210 
213 
234 
233 
235 
234 
239 

$8.20 
8.20 

7.00 

9.65 

15.20 

17.50 

17.70 

13.85 

8.35 

9.05 

$8.50 
8.30 

7.20 

9.60 

15.10 

17.40 

17.80 

14.20 

8.70 

9.30 

$8.45 

8.35 

7.20 

9.45 

14.90 

17.60 

18.00 

14.50 

8.95 

9.60 

$8.35 

8.30 

7.10 

9.60 

15.10 

17.45 

17.85 

14.15 

8.65 

9.20 

$7.35 
7.60 
6.60 
8.35 

1917         

14.40 

1918           

15.75 

1919         

16.00 

1920          

13.10 

1921           

8.70 

1922          

9.15 

Ten-year  average 

228 

11.45 

11.60 

11.70 

11.60 

10.70 

The  spread  ^  in  the  price  of  hogs  is  usually  narrowest  in  December, 
January,  and  May.  It  is  usually  widest  in  August,  September,  and 
October.  The  following  figures  are  averages  of  ten  years  at  the  Chicago 
market:  ^ 

Average  monthly  spread  in  monthly  extreme  range  of  prices  for  mixed  packing,  medium, 
and  butcher  hogs,  195-255  lbs.,  at  Chicago  for  ten  years 

Monthly  Monthly 

Month  Monthly  receipts  Month  Monthly  receipts 

spread  Thousands  spread  Thousands 

957 
779 


January ($1.69)  957  July 

February 1.85  779  August. .  . . 

March 2.16  665  September. 

April 1.85  548  October .  .  . 

May (1.68)  618  November. 

June 1.83  627  December. 


Monthly 
spread 

$2.57 
3.88 
3.35 
3.58 

2.18 

(1.70) 


551 
479 
429 
577 
736 
919 


These  ten-year  averages  show  twice  as  much  spread  in  August, 
September,  and  October  as  in  December,  January,  and  May.  It  may 
be  noted  also  that  in  a  general  way  the  spread  narrows  in  months  of 
large  receipts,  and  vice  versa.  Beginning  in  May,  the  spread  in  price 
widens  steadily  to  its  greatest  width  in  August,  continues  wide  during 
September  and  October,  and  then  narrows  from  October  to  January. 
It  widens  again,  but  to  a  lesser  degree,  from  January  to  March,  and 
narrows  from  March  to  May. 

These  variations  in  spread  are  explained  by  the  fact  that  good 
hogs  are  most  numerous  on  the  market  in  the  months  when  the  spring 
pig  crop  and  fall  pig  crop  are  marketed  in  largest  numbers.  The 
spring  crop  makes  its  heaviest  run  in  December  and  January.  The 
fall  crop  makes  its  heaviest  run  in  May  and  June.  During  these 
months  the  price  of  good  hogs  is  depressed  by  large  supplies.  In 
August,  September,  and  October,  good  young  hogs  are  held  in  the 


iThe  spread  is  the  difference  in  price.  For  example,  if  hog  prices  in  a  certain 
day,  week,  or  month  range  from  $9  to  $10,  the  spread  is  $1. 

2  Compiled  from  Drovers  Journal  Year  Books  of  Figures  covering  the  years 
1912  to  1914,  and  1916  to  1922,  inclusive. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  vStock 


377 


country  for  fattening  on  the  year's  crop  of  corn.  Good  hogs  are  scarce 
on  the  market  at  that  time  and  the  price  of  good  hogs  rises  so  as  to 
produce  a  wider  spread.  Furthermore,  receipts  in  these  months  include 
a  great  many  inferior  hogs,  the  result  of  marketing  culled  brood  sows 
and  other  inferior  stock.  Therefore  in  these  months  good  hogs  are 
scarce  and  higher  in  price,  and  inferior  hogs  are  relatively  plentiful 
and  lower  in  price,  and  the  spread  in  price  of  all  hogs  becomes  the 
widest  of  the  year. 

Spread  in  price  of  hogs  and  other  live  stock  compared. — The  spread 
in  price  in  the  hog  market  is  very  much  less  than  that  in  the  cattle  or 
sheep  market.  The  spread  in  price  within  each  market  class  of  hogs 
is  also  relatively  small.  These  facts  are  well  illustrated  in  the  follow- 
ing Chicago  prices  reported  in  two  issues  of  fhe  Breeder's  Gazette:  ^ 


Top  price  and  spread  in  price  of  live  stock  sold  for  slaughter  at  Chicago 


Market  class 

Aug.  28,  29,  30, 
1922 

Dec.  18,  19. 
1922 

Top 

Spread 

Top 

Spread 

Hogs: 
Bulk  of  sales                          

$9.65 

9.65 
9.00 
9.75 
8.50 
7.40 
7.25 
8.50 
6.00 

$3.15 
2.80 

.75 
.25 

1.15 
.65 
.50 

1.00 
.75 

$8.20 
8.20 
8.15 
8.25 
8.10 
7.85 
7.50 
8.25 
6.75 

$.30 

Light  and  medium  butcher            

.05 

Heavy  butcher                             

.05 

Choice  light  bacon                            

.05 

Good  to  choice  mixed                               

.30 

Heavy  mixed  packing                                 

.25 

Rough  heavy  packing                            

.20 

Good  to  choice  pigs 

.25 

Stags 

.75 

All  of  the  above 

9.75 
9.75 

4.65 
3.40 

8.25 
8.25 

2.25 

.95 

Cattle: 

10.95 
9.50 
8.00 
6.60 
4.35 
3.75 

12.00 

5.95 
5.00 
4.00 
2.10 
.60 
1.00 
7.75 

13.00 
9.50 
7.75 
6.35 
4.40 
4.00 

10.00 

7.25 

Butcher  heifers 

Butcher  cows 

5.00 
3.50 

Butcher  bulls          

2.00 

Bologna  bulls        

.90 

Cutter  and  canner  cows        

1.50 

Veal  calves                                   

5.00 

All  of  the  above                                                          .    . 

12.00 
10.95 

9.25 
6.95 

13.00 
13.00 

10.50 

All  except  cutters,  canners,  bulls,  and  calves 

8.75 

Sheep: 
Lambs 

13.00 

11.25 

9.25 

7.50 

4.50 
2.75 
2.75 
5.50 

15.35 

12.75 

9.50 

7.50 

6,85 

Yearlings 

4.00 

Wethers 

3.00 

Ewes 

5.00 

All  of  the  above 

13.00 
13.00 

11.00 
6.50 

15.35 
15.35 

1^85 

All  except  ewes 

8.85 

1  Issues  of  Aug.  31  and  Dec.  21,  1922. 


378 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


The  above  prices  for  cattle  and  sheep  show  vastly  more  spread 
than  those  for  hogs.  The  value  of  market  cattle  and  sheep  is  deter- 
mined very  largely  by  their  condition  and  quality,  together  with  their 
weight,  but  the  value  of  a  market  hog  is  determined  very  largely  by 
his  weight  alone.  The  condition  and  quality  of  hogs  vary  considerably 
and  affect  the  price,  but  do  not  affect  the  price  to  a  great  degree. 

There  are  several  reasons  for  the  small  spread  in  price  of  hogs. 
1.  Packers  have  discovered  and  developed  methods  of  curing  cuts 
from  the  poorer  hogs  which  enable  them  to  put  this  meat  on  the  market 
in  attractive  and  appetizing  form.  This  has  increased  the  price  of  the 
plainer  classes  of  hogs.  2.  Hogs  do  not  vary  as  much  in  dressing 
percentage  as  cattle  and  sheep.  3.  All  hogs  are  strictly  meat  animals, 
whereas  the  cattle  market  receives  a  considerable  number  of  dairy 
animals,  and  the  sheep  market  receives  a  large  number  of  Merinos. 
4.  Age  does  not  make  pork  as  tough  as  beef  and  mutton.  Juiciness 
and  color  are  less  variable  in  pork  than  in  other  meats. 

The  December  prices  given  above  indicate  no  necessity  for  grading 
the  various  market  classes  of  hogs.  The  August  prices  indicate  that 
some  grading  at  that  season  may  be  advantageous.  That  there  is  at 
most  only  a  very  brief  period  in  the  year  when  the  grading  of  hogs  may 
be  desirable  is  shown  by  the  following  figures  showing  the  spread  in 
price  of  the  bulk  of  hogs  sold  at  Chicago,  and  in  all  butcher  hogs,  as  com- 
pared to  the  three  top  grades  of  beef  steers:  ^ 


Spread  in  price  of  live  stock  sold  for  slaughter  at  Chicago 


First  part  of  week  of — 


November  3,  1921 $0.50 

December  1,  1921 

January  12,  1922 

February  16,  1922 

March  2,  1922 

April  20,  1922 

May  25,  1922 

June  22,  1922 

July  20,  1922 

August  3,  1922 

August  17,  1922 

August  31,  1922 

September  14,  1922 

September  28,  1922 

October  12,  1922 

November  9,  1922 

December  7,  1922 

January  4,  1923 

March  1,  1923 

»  Heavy  butchers,  75  cents;  light  and  medium  butchers,  $1.05. 
'  Heavy  butchers,  75  cents;  light  and  medium  butchers,  80  cents. 
'  Heavy  butchers,  50  cents;  light  and  medium  butchers,  55  cents 

1  Compiled  from  Breeder's  Gazette's  market  reports. 


All  butcher 

Bulk  of 

hogs — heavy 

Good  to 

ho{rs  sold 

medium,  and 
light 

prime  steers 

$0.50 

$0.20 

$4.90 

.25 

.25 

5.00 

.60 

.65 

2.75 

.35 

.40 

1.50 

.35 

.35 

1.75 

.75 

.65 

1.65 

.45 

.30 

1.00 

1.05 

.50 

1.35 

2.05 

.85 

1.55 

2.60 

.85 

1.65 

2.65 

1.651 

1.85 

3.15 

1.40 » 

1.95 

2.40 

1.30 » 

2.60 

2.75 

.80 

2.25 

1.50 

.35 

4.05 

.50 

.45 

4.50 

.25 

.10 

4.65 

.15 

.20 

4.00 

.55 

.40 

2.00 

Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


379 


Monthly  variations  in  hog  prices. — The  accompanying  table' 
shows  that  yearly  average  prices  for  hogs  at  Chicago  steadily  and 
rapidly  increased  from  1915  to  1918  and  1919,  and  then  declined  to 
the  amount  of  $9.20  during  1920  and  1921.  This  was  due  to  inflation 
of  prices  during  the  World  War  and  to  severe  depression  or  reaction 
following  the  war. 

Highest  monthly  prices  are  printed  in  bold-face  type.  These  are 
scattered  widely,  though  most  of  them  occur  in  the  three  months  from 
July  to  September  inclusive.  These  are  also  months  of  low  receipts. 
The  last  column  at  the  right  shows  that  the  prices  during  these  three 
months  average  highest  for  the  ten  years. 

Monthly  and  yearly  average  prices  for  hogs  at  Chicago  for  ten  years 


Month 

1922     1921 

1920 

1919 

1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

1914 

1913 

Ten-year 
average 

January 

($7.90)   $9.40 

$15.00 

$17.60 

($16.30)   ($10.90)   ($7.20)  $6.90 

$8.30 

($7.45) 

$10.70 

February 

9.85      9.35 

14.55 

17.65 

16.65 

12.45 

8.20 

6.80 

8.60 

8.15 

11.25 

March 

10.45      9.90 

14.95 

19.10 

17.10 

14.80 

9.65 

6.75 

8.70 

8.90 

12.05 

April 
May 

10.35      8.50 

14.90 

20.40 

17.45 

15.75 

9.75 

7.30 

8.65 

9.05 

12.20 

10.50      8.35 

14.30 

20.60 

17.45 

15.90 

9.85 

7.60 

8.45 

8.55 

12.15 

June 

10.40      8.20 

14.70 

20.40 

16.60 

15.50 

9.70 

7.60 

8.20 

8.65 

12.00 

July 

9.80      9.75 

14.85 

21.85 

17.75 

15.20 

9.80 

7.25 

8.70 

9.05 

12.40 

August 

8-55_-a45 

14.75 

20.00 

19.00 

16.90 

10.30 
10.70 

6.90 
7.25 

9.00 

8.85 

8.35- 
8.30 

12.30 

September 

8.70     'TTbu- 

15.90" 

"  17.45 

19.65 

18.20 

October 

8.85      7.70 

14.05 

14.35 

17.70 

17.15 

9.80 

7.90 

7.65 

8.20 

11.35 

8.10      7.05 

12.20 

14.20 

17.70 

17.40 

9.60 

6.65 

7.50 

7.75 

10.80 

December 

8.20     (7.00) 

(9.55) 

(13.60) 

17.55 

16.85 

9.95 

(6.40) 

(7.10) 

7.70 

(10.40) 

Yearly 

9.20      8.65 

14.15 

17.85 

17.45 

15.10 

9.60 

7.10 

8.30 

8.35 

11.60 

average 

Lowest  monthly  prices  are  enclosed  in  parenthesis.  Five  of  these 
occur  in  December  and  five  in  January,  the  months  of  largest  receipts. 
The  ten-year  averages  show  a  continued  rise  from  December  to  April, 
a  very  gradual  decline  during  May  and  June,  then  a  rise  to  the  high 
point  in  July,  followed  by  a  steady  decline  from  July  to  December. 
Between  the  July  and  December  average  prices  for  the  ten  years  the 
difference  is  $2.00. 

Greater  uniformity  would  occur  in  the  highs  of  the  various  years 
had  it  not  been  for  the  fact  that  the  very  marked  rise  in  price  from 
1915  to  1919  largely  superceded  the  seasonal  variations  in  establishing 
prices  within  these  years.  The  same  statement  applies  to  the  drop  in 
price  during  1920  and  1921.  ^  That  there  are  nevertheless  marked 
seasonal  variations  in  hog  prices  is  shown  by  the  monthly  averages  for 
the  entire  ten  years.  These  monthly  averages  are  illustrated  and  ex- 
plained in  Fig.  140. 

Hog  prices  as  related  to  supply. — That  the  price  of  hogs  varies 
directly  in  relation  to  supply  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  chart 


'Compiled  from  Drovers  Journal  Year  Books  of  Figures. 

*A  steadily  rising  market  would  leave  a  trail  of  January  lows  and  December 
highs,  and  vice  versa. 


380 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


illustrating  the  comparison  between  monthly  average  prices  and  aver- 
age receipts  at  Chicago  for  ten  years,  1913  to  1922  inclusive.  The 
chart  strikingly  illustrates  the  fact  that  supply  and  demand  rule  prices. 
Demand  for  hogs  for  slaughter  is  fairly  constant,  hence  supply  very 
largely  determines  prices.  The  chart  explains  why  prices  are  highest 
in  the  period  from  July  to  September,  and  lowest  in  December  and 
January.  Increased  receipts  in  May  and  June  when  fall  pigs  arrive  in 
numbers  also  has  its  effect  in  lowered  prices. 

The  chart  does  not  take  into  account  the  monthly  variations  in 
average  weight  of  hogs.  If  this  were  done  the  correlation  between 
supply  and  price  doubtless  would  be  even  more  marked. 

It  should  be  noted  that  when  the  monthly  receipts  are  decreased, 
one-half  the  price  is  not  doubled,  hence  the  correlation  is  not  perfect. 


RECEIPTS 


Fig.  140. — Hog  receipts  and  prices  at  Chicago.  This  chart  shows  average 
monthly  receipts  of  hogs  in  thousands  and  monthly  average  prices  of  hogs  for  ten 
years,  1913  to  1922.  Prices  are  represented  by  black  bars.  Receipts  are  represented 
by  white  bars,  but  each  white  bar  is  prolonged  in  black  to  make  all  of  equal  length, 
the  longer  the  black  coloring  the  smaller  the  average  monthly  receipts.  This  brings 
out  in  striking  manner  the  correlation  between  hog  receipts  and  hog  prices. 

This  is  partly  explained  by  the  fact  that  much  pork  is  cured  and  is 
stored  in  seasons  of  large  receipts  for  consumption  in  seasons  of  small 
receipts.  But  it  is  more  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  pork  is  in  competi- 
tion with  other  meats  and  all  meats  are  in  competition  with  other  kinds 
of  food.  If  the  available  supply  of  all  human  food  were  decreased  one- 
half,  no  doubt  the  price  would  more  than  double. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
BREEDING  FOR  THE  MARKET 

Hog  raising  has  always  been  a  profitable  and  favorite  department 
of  farming  in  the  United  States,  In  Colonial  times  pork  production 
was  a  very  simple  matter.  Hogs  were  allowed  to  run  wild  in  the  woods 
where  they  fed  upon  roots  and  natural  grasses  and  fattened  upon 
acorns  and  beech  and  hickory  nuts,  called  "mast."  The  only  expense 
to  the  farmer  was  the  winter  feeding  of  those  too  young  for  market 
and  of  those  reserved  for  breeding  purposes.  Inasmuch  as  Indian  corn 
was  the  feed  used  and  as  this  cereal  would  not  repay  the  expense  of 
transportation  to  market  until  the  introduction  of  railways,  it  cost 
very  little  to  produce  pork.  Even  after  the  organization  of  the  national 
government  and  the  settling  of  the  Middle  West  it  was  the  general 
impression  among  farmers  that  it  cost  nothing  for  a  man  to  make  his 
own  pork,  and  for  a  long  time  large  numbers  of  dressed  hogs  were  sold 
in  that  section  of  the  country  at  prices  ranging  from  75  cents  to  $1  per 
cwt.  and  were  considered  sufficiently  remunerative  at  these  figures.  ^ 

As  greater  areas  came  under  cultivation  and  the  natural  forests 
became  more  restricted,  it  was  found  more  profitable  and  convenient 
to  feed  hogs  on  corn  than  to  turn  them  out  into  the  woods,  as  they 
grew  faster  and  took  on  more  fat.  It  was  at  this  stage  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  American  swine  industry  that  pork  packing  was  com- 
menced, and  this  gave  a  pronounced  impetus  to  hog  production. 
This  was  before  the  days  of  railroads,  and  hogs  were  taken  overland  in 
droves  to  the  nearest  packing  point.  Later,  when  the  railroads  came, 
a  great  saving  was  effected  by  eliminating  losses  due  to  the  giving  out 
of  hogs  on  the  route,  and  pork  packing  and  hog  raising  received  an 
impulse  that  has  greatly  helped  to  make  pork  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant staples  of  the  country. 

Development  of  lard-type  hogs. — The  early  settlers  of  the  United 
States  brought  hogs  with  them  from  Europe,  and  importations  of  many 
varieties  and  breeds  of  hogs  occurred  later.  Various  crosses  of  these 
early  stocks  were  made,  and  from  various  combinations  of  bloodlines 
various  American  breeds  of  hogs  originated  and  were  later  improved 
by  selection.  Conditions  in  this  country  demand  a  type  of  swine  that 
fattens  readily  and  can  utilize  a  large  share  of  the  corn  crop  in  the  pro- 
duction of  pork  and  lard,  and  all  of  the  breeds  of  hogs  developed  in  the 


1  Charles  Cist:  The  Hog  and  Its  Products,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  An.  Rpt.,  1866, 
p.  382. 

381 


382  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

United  States  are  of  this  type  and  some  of  the  breeds  which  we  have  im- 
ported have  been  remodeled  so  as  to  more  closely  conform  to  this  type. 

In  early  times  in  the  United  States  there  was  a  large  demand  for 
cured  meats.  In  mining  camps,  lumber  camps,  and  frontier  sections, 
and  on  sea-going  ships,  mess  pork  was  in  great  demand  because  it 
could  be  easily  kept  in  storage  for  long  periods.  It  could  be  transported 
long  distances  overland  in  wagons,  or  overseas  in  sailing  vessels,  or  on 
inland  waterways  in  flat  boats,  without  deterioration.  In  those  days 
only  cured  meats  were  in  demand  in  commerce  because  there  were  no 
refrigeration  facilities  and  transportation  was  slow.  Except  in  winter 
there  were  no  refrigeration  facilities  for  slaughtering  or  for  storage. 

The  best  mess  pork  is  the  fattest  pork,  because  it  requires  less 
salt  to  cure  it  and  it  absorbs  less  salt  and  is  more  palatable  than  lean 
salt  pork.  Furthermore,  fat  meat  contains  more  energy  than  lean 
meat  and  is  therefore  more  economical  and  valuable,  particularly  for 
laborers  at  hard  work  in  cold  weather. 

The  foreign  demand  for  cheap  meats  also  afforded  a  large  outlet 
for  fat  pork  made  from  low-priced  corn.  This  trade  was  a  considerable 
factor  in  the  early  development  of  our  hog  and  corn  industries,  and 
our  export  trade  still  affords  a  market  for  a  considerable  percentage  of 
our  pork  and  lard  and  thereby  for  a  considerable  share  of  our  corn  crop. 

Thus  we  see  that  there  was  need  of  a  particular  type  of  hog  adapted 
to  our  special  requirements,  and  that  there  was  a  vast  and  increasing 
field  for  this  new  type  as  the  country  was  settled  and  as  the  corn  belt 
was  developed.  Since  an  early  day  there  has  been  every  incentive  to 
pay  particular  attention  to  pork  production  and  to  hog  breeding  in 
this  country.  For  many  years  past  the  improvement  of  our  American 
breeds  and  of  our  imported  breeds,  and  the  maintenance  of  purebred 
herds  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  boars  and  sows  for  use  in  farm  herds, 
has  commanded  the  best  efforts  of  a  large  number  of  our  stockmen. 

The  number  of  hogs  on  farms  in  the  United  States  on  census  dates 
grew  from  26  million  in  1840,  to  34  million  in  1860,  48  in  1880,  57  in 
1890,  and  63  in  1900,  and  then  declined  to  58  in  1910  and  59  in  1920. 
The  census  date  was  June  1  until  1910,  when  it  was  changed  to  April 
15.     It  was  changed  to  January  1  in  1920. 

The  number  of  hogs  on  farms  in  the  United  States  on  January  1 
of  the  various  years,  as  estimated  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, was  34  million  in  1880,  52  in  1890,  37  in  1900,  48  in  1910,  and  72 
in  1920.  ^  These  estimates  recently  have  been  revised,  using  census 
data  as  a  basis.  The  revised  estimates  are  51  million  in  1880,  59  in 
1890,  54  in  1900,  57  in  1910,  and  59  in  1920.  ^ 


lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1920,  p.  753. 
2U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1922,  p.  192. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


383 


The  following  figures  reported  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture show  the  rank  of  the  leading  pork-producing  countries  and  the 
number  of  hogs  in  each: 

Number  of  hogs  in  leading  countries 

Country  Year  Number  of  hogs 

1.  United  States 1923 63,424,000 

2.  Brazil 1916 17,329,000 

3.  Germany 1921 15,876,000 

4.  Russia 1921 13,501,000 

5.  Spain 1921 5,152,000 

6.  Poland 1921 5,101,000 

7.  France 1920 4,584,000 

8.  Canada 1921 3,905,000 

9.  Great  Britain 1921 3,639,000 

10.  Hungary 1920 3,320,000 

11.  Argentina 1920 3,199,000 

12.  Philippines 1919 3,130,000 

13.  Siberia 1915 2,962,000 

14.  Rumania 1920 2,514,000 

15.  Italy 1918 2,339,000 

World  total 169,167,000  ' 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  680. 

The  United  States  has  over  3.5  times  as  many  hogs  as  Brazil, 
second  in  tlie  above  list.  Three  states,  Iowa,  Illinois,  and  Missouri, 
have  more  hogs  than  Brazil.  The  United  States  has  more  than  any 
other  five  of  the  above  countries  combined,  and  the  number  of  hogs  in 
Iowa  is  exceeded  by  only  three  of  these  countries  other  than  the  United 
States.  However,  China  is  one  of  the  leading  pork-producing  coun- 
tries, but  no  live-stock  census  has  been  taken  for  that  country.  ^ 

Pork  production  and  consumption  in  the  United  States  is  reported 
in  the  following  table  ^  giving  the  annual  slaughter,  imports,  exports, 
and  consumption  of  pork  and  lard : 


Estimated  annual  production  and  consumption  of  dressed  pork  and  lard  ir 
United  States 

the 

Total  slaughter 

Exports  less 
imports 

Consumption 

Calendar 
year 

Total 

Per  capita 

Pork 

Lard 

Pork 

Lard 

Pork 

Lard 

Pork 

Lard 

1907 

Million 
pounds 

7,491 
5,881 
8,050 
8,634 
6,901 
8,854 
8,933 
8,193 
8,475 
9,162 

Million 
pounds 

1,683 
1,344 
1,840 
1,973 
1,577 
2,015 
2,089 
2,022 
2,095 
2,330 

Million 
pounds 

1,014 
313 

881 

1,001 

921 

1,698 

1,858 

907 

741 

703 

Million 
pounds 

589 
379 
489 
457 
384 
555 
785 
636 
893 
789 

Million 
pounds 

6,477 

5,568 

7,169 

7,633 

5,980 

6,997' 

7,200  1 

7,3501 

7,8571 

8,306  1 

Million 
pounds 

1,094 
965 
1,351 
1,516 
1,193 
1,4101 
1,3461 
1,3901 
1,2141 
1,5411 

Pounds 

74.1 
60.3 
72.2 
75.7 
58.5 
67.6 
68.6 
69.0 
72.9 
76.0 

Pounds 

12.5 

1910 

10.5 

1915 

13.6 

1916          

15.1 

1917 

11.7 

1918 

13.6 

1919 

12.8 

1920 

13  1 

1921 

11.3 

1922 

14.1 

•  Includes  difference  between  quantities  in  storage  at  beginning  and  end  of  year. 


lAn  estimate  of  76,819,000  hogs  for  China  in  1914  is  published  in  the  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  676. 

2John  Roberts:  Meat  Production,  Consumption,  and  Foreign  Trade  in  United 
States,  1907-1922,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Mimeographed  Report. 


384  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

From  1918  to  1921  inclusive  we  exported  16.5  per  cent  of  our 
total  production  of  dressed  pork,  lard,  and  edible  offal,  and  during 
these  years  our  total  production  of  pork  was  32  per  cent  greater  than 
that  of  beef,  veal,  mutton,  and  lamb  combined,  including  edible  offal.  ^ 
Our  per  capita  consumption  of  dressed  pork,  exclusive  of  lard,  was 
greater  in  1921  and  1922  than  that  of  all  other  meats  combined.  This 
is  shown  by  the  following  table:  ^ 

Annual  per  capita  consumption  of  dressed  meat  and  lard  in  the  United  States 

Product  1922  1921  1920 


Beef,  lbs 

Veal,  lbs 

Mutton  and  Iamb,  lbs 

Pork  (excl.  lard)  lbs               

....  61.4 
....  7.3 
....  5.0 
....   76.0 

57.8 
7.0 
6.2 

72.9 

143.9 
11.3 

155.2 

61.2 
7.9 
5.1 

69.0 

Total  meat,  lbs 

Lard, lbs 

Total  meat  and  lard,  lbs ...  . 

....149.7 
....   14.1 

.. ..163.8 

143.2 
13.1 

156.3 

The  distribution  of  hogs  in  the  United  States  is  shown  by  the 
numbers  in  the  leading  states  and  in  the  various  geographical  divisions, 
as  estimated  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture: 

Leading  states  in  numbers  of  hogs  on  farms,  January  1,  1923 


state 

Number 

Average 
value 

state 

Number 

Average 
value 

1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Iowa 

Illinois 

Missouri .  . .  . 
Nebraska.  .  . 
Indiana 

.  .  .   9,615,000 

.  . .  4,693,000 
.  . .  4,306,000 
.  . .  4,232,000 
.  . .  4,102,000 

$12.80 
12.50 

9.83 
12.00 
11.90 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

Ohio 

Kansas 

Minnesota .  .  . 

Texas 

South  Dakota 

.  3,091,000 
.  2,776,000 
.  2,610,000 
.  2,326,000 
.  2,238,000 

$12.10 

11.00 

13.20 

8.80 

13.50 

The  estimated  average  value  of  all  hogs  in  the  United  States  on 
January  1,  1923,  was  $11.46. 

Half  of  the  hogs  in  the  United  States  are  produced  in  the  seven 
corn-belt  states,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Indiana, 
and  Ohio. 

Distribution  of  hogs  on  farms  by  geographical  divisions  on  January  1,  1923 

Division  Number 

North  Atlantic  Division 2,205,000 

South  Atlantic  Division ' 6,480,000 

North  Central,  East  of  Mississippi  River 14,746,000 

North  Central,  West  of  Mississippi  River 26,300,000 

South  Central  Division 11,050,000 

Far  Western  Division 2,643,000 


Total 63,424,000 

As  hogs  are  now  distributed  throughout  the  geographic  divisions, 
the  North  Central  States,  extending  from  Ohio  to  the  western  line  of 


lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  683. 

2U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Mimeographed  Report. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


385 


Kansas,  have  65  per  cent  of  the  national  total;  the  Southern  States, 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  western  line  of  Texas,  have  28  per  cent 
of  the  total;  and  the  remaining  7  per  cent  are  in  the  East  and  in  the 
Far  Western  States. 

Conditions  suitable  to  pork  production. — As  stated  by  Henry  and 
Morrison  ^  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  "The  horse,  ox,  and  sheep 
are  normally  herbivorous,  living  on  the  finer  and  more  delicate  portions 
of  plants  and  their  seeds,  while  the  omnivorous  pig  feeds  not  only  on 
the  tender  leaves,  stems,  roots,  and  seeds,  but  on  animal  matter  as 
well.  Because  of  the  limited  capacity  of  the  stomach  and  the  nature 
of  its  digestive  apparatus  the  pig  requires  food  that  is  more  concen- 
trated and  digestible  and  less  woody  than  that  of  the  other  farm 
animals." 


Fig.  141. — Distribution  of  hogs  in  the  United  States. 


Economical  pork  production  requires  the  use  of  a  large  proportion 
of  grain  or  other  concentrated  feeds.  Beef  and  mutton  can  be  pro- 
duced successfully  without  grain  feeding,  but  pork  production  requires 
grain  feeding  to  a  very  large  degree.  Beef  cattle  and  sheep  are  well 
adapted  to  range  conditions  in  the  semi-arid  regions  of  the  West,  but 
the  hog  has  no  place  whatever  under  these  conditions.  Hogs  can 
profitably  utilize  very  limited  amounts  of  legume  hay  and  they  can 
use  certain  pastures  to  advantage  as  supplements  to  their  grain  ration, 
but  weanling  pigs  kept  on  the  best  of  pastures  without  any  other  feed 
make  very  slight  gains  or  do  not  gain  at  all.     The  hog  is,  then,  adapted 


1  Feeds  and  Feeding,  1915,  p.  587. 


386  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

to  improved  lands  and  to  regions  where  a  plentiful  supply  of  grain  for 
feeding  is  produced. 

Hogs  are  especially  suited  to  the  com  belt  because  corn  is  the  most 
economical  grain  feed  available  for  pork  production.  Gains  produced 
on  corn  are  usually  cheaper  than  those  produced  on  other  cereals,  and 
pork  made  from  corn  is  firm  and  of  good  quality.  Hogs  are  also  well 
adapted  to  other  regions  of  the  United  States  where  barley,  kafir,  milo, 
soybeans,  cowpeas,  field  peas,  peanuts,  skim  milk,  and  buttermilk  are 
available  for  feeding.  Pork  is  profitably  produced  in  the  South  from 
corn,  peanuts,  grain  sorghums,  and  pasture  crops,  and  it  is  also  pro- 
duced very  economically  and  profitably  in  dairy  districts  where  dairy 
by-products  are  available  for  feeding  in  combination  with  grain.  The 
farmer  in  the  corn  belt  or  elsewhere  who  combines  dairying  and  hog 
raising  increases  the  income  from  his  dairy  cattle  because  dairy  by- 
products are  most  valuable  when  used  as  feed  for  hogs  or  poultry,  and 
he  increases  his  profits  in  pork  production  because  of  a  larger  number 
of  pigs  saved  and  raised  per  litter  and  because  of  rapidity  and  economy 
of  gains.  Many  farms  in  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and 
other  states  have  found  the  dairy  cow  and  the  pig  to  be  a  most  desirable 
combination  for  efficiency  in  the  profitable  conversion  of  field  crops 
into  animal  products.  Hogs  and  beef  cattle  constitute  another  ex- 
cellent combination  for  the  utilization  without  waste  of  all  grains, 
roughages,  and  pastures  produced  in  a  general  system  of  farming. 

Corn  and  hogs. — The  uses  of  corn  harvested  for  grain  in  the 
United  States,  based  on  estimates  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, are  as  follows:^ 

Per  cent 

Fed  to  hogs  on  farms 40.0 

Fed  to  horses  and  mules  on  farms 20.0 

Fed  to  cattle 15.0 

Used  as  human  food 10.0 

Fed  to  stock  not  on  farms 5.5 

Fed  to  poultry  on  farms 4.0 

Fed  to  sheep  on  farms 1.0 

Export  and  other  uses 4.5 

Total 100.0 

Eighty-five  per  cent  of  corn  is  fed  to  live  stock,  and  hogs  consume 
twice  as  much  corn  as  any  other  class  of  farm  animals.  Hogs  are  more 
closely  allied  with  corn,  and  less  allied  with  other  crops  used  as  feed 
(including  pastures),  than  is  true  of  other  farm  live  stock.  Dairy 
cattle  approach  hogs  in  this  regard,  followed  by  horses,  beef  cattle,  and 
sheep  in  the  order  named.  The  writer  determined  the  average  rank 
of  the  various  states  in  corn  production  for  the  nine-year  period  from 

1  Leigh ty,  Warburton,  Stine,  and  Baker:  The  Corn  Crop,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
Yearbook,  1921,  p.  165. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


387 


1907  to  1915  inclusive.  Similar  average  rankings  in  each  kind  of  live 
stock  were  determined  for  each  state,  based  on  the  number  of  animals 
in  each  state  on  January  1,  from  1908  to  1916  inclusive.  For  example, 
Kansas'  average  rank  in  com  during  this  period  was  8th;  in  hogs,  8th; 
in  dairy  cattle,  11th;  in  horses,  4th;  in  beef  cattle,  4th;  and  in  sheep, 
30th.  Thus,  Kansas'  rank  in  hogs  did  not  vary  from  her  rank  in  corn; 
in  dairy  cattle  she  varied  3  points  from  corn;  in  horses,  4  points;  in  beef 
cattle,  4  points;  and  in  sheep,  22  points.  If  the  number  of  points  be- 
tween hogs  and  corn  in  each  state  are  added  together,  we  find  that 
hogs  varied  196  points  from  com  in  the  48  states;  dairy  cattle  varied 


Fig.  142. — Pork  production  in  the  United  States  is  closely  related  to  corn  pro- 
duction. These  graphs  show  the  average  rank  of  the  various  states  in  corn  produc- 
tion from  1907  to  1915,  and  in  numbers  of  hogs  and  sheep  on  January  1,  from  1908 
to  1916  inclusive.  Hogs  are  closely  related  to  corn,  followed  by  dairy  cattle,  horses, 
beef  cattle,  and  sheep  in  the  order  named.  Sheep  raising  has  practically  no  depend- 
ence on  corn  production. 


233  points  from  com;  horses,  401  points;  beef  cattle,  489  points;  and 
sheep,  788  points. 

The  average  rank  of  the  states  in  com,  hogs,  and  sheep  for  the 
nine  years  is  herewith  presented  graphically.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
in  only  four  states  do  sheep  rank  closer  to  com  than  do  hogs.  These 
are  New  Hampshire,   Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin.      In 


388  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Rhode  Island  and  North  Dakota  sheep  and  hogs  vary  an  equal  number 
of  points  from  the  rank  in  corn.  In  each  of  the  remaining  42  states, 
hogs  rank  closer  to  corn  than  do  sheep.  Notice  how  closely  corn  and 
hogs  are  associated  in  the  first  eight  states.  There  seems  to  be  no 
correlation  between  sheep  and  corn. 

Changes  in  size  and  weight  of  market  hogs. — By  1850  American 
swine  growers  had  developed  a  very  large,  lengthy,  broad  backed,  deep 
middled,  and  rather  coarse  type  of  hog  that  grew  to  large  size  and  was 
marketed  at  very  heavy  weights.  Early  pork  packers  paid  a  premium 
for  very  heavy  weights.  Weights  in  market  hogs  ranging  from  350  to 
500  pounds  were  fairly  common,  and  some  weighed  over  700  pounds. 

Writing  in  1866,  Charles  Cist,  of  Cincinnati,  stated : '  "The  differ- 
ent classes  of  cured  pork,  packed  in  barrels,  are  made  of  the  different 
sizes  and  conditions  of  hogs,  the  finest  and  fattest  making  clear  and 
mess  pork,  while  the  residue  is  put  up  into  prime  pork  and  bacon. 
The  inspection  laws  require  that  clear  pork  shall  be  put  up  of  the 
sides  with  the  ribs  out.  It  takes  the  largest  class  of  hogs  to  receive 
this  brand." 

In  1864  H.  D.  Emery,  of  Chicago,  stated  ^  that  "the  price  for  dressed 
hogs  divides  at  200  pounds,  the  lowest  price  being  for  light  ones."  He 
also  states,  "The  earliest  purchases  made  for  packing  in  1832  to  1834 
varied  from  $2  to  $3  per  hundred  net.  To  show  the  weight  of  hogs 
in  early  days,  contracts  were  sometimes  made  between  packers  and 
drovers  for  a  lot  of  hogs,  for  which  a  given  price  was  to  be  paid,  the 
hogs  to  average  150  pounds;  for  all  that  they  averaged  over  that 
1  cent  per  pound  was  to  be  added,  and  all  that  they  fell  short  1  cent 
per  pound  was  to  be  deducted.  This  was  an  incentive  to  produce 
heavy  hogs,  the  contracts  being  made  early  in  the  season." 

In  1842  a  writer  ^  described  the  hogs  of  the  Miami  valley  near 
Cincinnati  (foundation  stock  of  the  Poland-China  breed)  as  follows: 
"But  the  stock  to  which  the  people  here  have  paid  the  greatest  atten- 
tion, and  which  is  their  largest  and  most  staple  production,  is  swine. 
The  immense  crops  of  corn  enable  them  to  keep  vast  herds  of  these 
animals,  and  one  will  find  from  50  to  300  head  of  the  various  sizes, 
from  pigs  up  to  immense  fatting  porkers,  on  nearly  every  farm  that 
he  may  happen  to  pass."  The  same  writer  reports  that  he  had  re- 
peatedly seen  hogs  in  that  region  that  would  weigh  from  800  to  1,000 
pounds. 

Clark  Petit's  History  of  Jersey  Reds  (ancestors  of  the  modern 
Duroc-Jersey)  states  that  among  New  Jersey  breeders  there  "had  long 


lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  An.  Rpt.,  1866,  p.  386. 

2U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  An.  Rpt.,  1863,  pp.  210,  211. 

'American  Agriculturist,  Nov.,  1842,  p.  234. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  389 

existed  a  great  spirit  of  rivalry  as  to  who  should  annually  win  the  honor 
of  raising  the  best  lot  of  hogs,  making  the  greatest  average  weight  at 
different  ages,  for  which  Philadelphia  butchers  always  paid  an  ad- 
vanced price."    Following  are  some  of  the  dressed  weights  reported: 

Average 

dressed  weight 

Pounds 

30  hogs,  22  months  old 686 

18  hogs,  22  months  old 734 

23  hogs,  20  months  old 639.5 

34  hogs,  17  months  old 565 

51  hogs,  17  months  old 520 

17  hogs 862 

20  hogs 882 

25  pigs,  8  months  old 413 

16  pigs,  7  months  old 278 

20  pigs,  6M  months  old 280 

Other  early  writers  reported  equally  heavy  weights  for  Jersey 
Red  hogs  and  early  Poland-Chinas.  ^ 

The  following  weights  of  hogs  packed  in  the  West  during  the 
winter  packing  season,  and  of  hogs  marketed  annually  at  Chicago, 
show  the  changes  that  have  occurred  during  the  last  half  century: 

Average  live  weight  of  hogs  and  yield  of  lard  in  the  West  for  the  winter  packing 
ending  March  1  ^ 


Weight        Lard 

Weight 

Lard 

Year 

Pounds     Per  cent 

Year 

Pounds 

Per  cent 

1873 

290.53     13.80 

1908 

. .  . .  221.04 

14.44 

1878 

282.55     13.66 

1913 

. .  . .  223.50 

13.07 

1883 

267.02     13.27 

1918 

....  220.60 

9.41 

1888 

242.30     12.82 

1919.... 

..  ..  214.08 

13.87 

1893 

227.73     13.90 

1920 

. .  . .  226.57 

13.79 

1898 

235.35     14.76 

1921 

....  229.02 

13.65 

1903 

224.05     14.42 

Average  live  weight 

1922 

of  hogs  at  Chicago* 

. .  . .  228.47 

15.75 

January      Yearly 

January 

Yearly 

Year 

average      average 

Year 

average 

average 

1876 

281             250 

1905 

....      213 

222 

1880 

265          246 

1910 

....     210 

235 

1885 

258          239 

1915 

....     223 

219 

1890 

241           234 

1920 

....     229 

235 

1895 

223          230 

1922 

. . . .     229 

239 

1900 

229          233 

Note  that  January  weights  exceeded  yearly  average  weights  at 
Chicago  until  1890,  and  that  subsequently  January  averages  were 
lower  than  yearly  averages. 

Development  of  an  unprofitable  type. — During  the  late  seventies 
and  early  eighties  fresh  pork  and  bacon  began  rapidly  to  replace  the 


1  American  Duroc-Jersey  Record,  Vol.  4,  pp.  15,  16. 

2U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  An.  Rpt.,  1866,  pp.  384,  385;  Standard  Poland-China  Record, 
Vol.  1,  1887,  pp.  22,  23. 

3  Compiled  from  Price  Current — Grain  Reporter  Year  Books. 
*  Drovers  Journal  Year  Book  of  Figures  for  1922. 


390  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

heavy  salt  meats  which  had  been  in  greater  demand,  and  packers  gave 
preference  to  handy-weight  hogs  weighing  from  225  to  275  pounds. 
As  a  result  of  this,  hog  breeders  turned  their  attention  to  the  develop- 
ment of  quality  and  early  maturity,  sacrificing  size  to  obtain  them. 
They  developed  a  very  wide,  thick,  compact,  short  legged,  close- to- 
the-ground  type  of  hog,  having  great  refinement  of  bone,  head,  ear, 
hair,  and  fleshing,  and  great  smoothness.  An  extreme  type  was 
developed,  in  fact  the  swing  from  size  and  coarseness  to  high  quality 
and  compactness  was  carried  so  far  that  during  the  nineties  farmers 
made  strong  objections  to  the  small,  chunky  type  developed  by  many 
breeders  of  purebred  hogs.  The  sows  were  not  prolific  and  the  pigs 
lacked  ability  to  grow  rapidly,  to  make  large  daily  gains,  and  to  attain 
market  weights  in  quick  time. 

The  modern  type. — The  reaction  from  the  small  type  following 
the  year  1905  became  so  marked  that  very  rough,  coarse  hogs,  and 
hogs  of  very  inferior  form,  found  favor  with  breeders  and  farmers 
merely  because  they  had  large  size.  A  little  later,  smoothness  and 
good  form  were  added  without  loss  of  size.  It  was  found  that  in  order 
to  grow  to  large  size  a  hog  need  not  be  rough  and  coarse  in  quality,  nor 
awkward  and  slouching  in  form.  But  there  are  three  things  which 
are  essential  to  the  development  of  size  in  hogs  and  essential  to  the 
most  rapid  growth.  These  are  length  of  body,  length  of  leg,  and 
large  but  not  coarse  bone.  The  long  and  rather  narrow  bodied, 
leggy,  weanling  pig  with  ample  bone  is  the  one  that  grows  rapidly, 
keeps  on  growing  for  a  long  period,  and  makes  a  big  hog.  Such  a  pig 
requires  also  a  fourth  essential  to  make  him  the  most  profitable  sort 
of  a  market  pig— namely,  depth  and  capacity  of  chest  and  middle 
to  insure  constitutional  vigor,  good  feeding  qualities,  and  the  desired 
finish  at  market  weights. 

In  earlier  times  when  corn  was  cheap,  hogs  were  given  a  complete 
finish  before  they  were  marketed.  When  the  change  to  the  handy- 
weight  market  hog  occurred,  corn  was  still  relatively  cheap  and  a  high 
finish  was  given,  producing  very  broad-backed  hogs.  In  some  recent 
years  higher  prices  for  com  and  lower  prices  for  lard  have  operated  to 
lessen  to  some  extent  the  amount  of  finish  which  is  most  desirable  from 
the  producer's  standpoint.  The  modem  corn-belt  hog,  though  still  a 
lard  hog,  is  not  quite  so  thick  and  broad  as  his  predecessor.  It  seems 
logical  to  suppose  that  the  lard  hog  of  the  future  will  be  required  to 
make  his  gains  more  largely  in  growth,  on  cheap  forages,  and  less  in 
fat  on  heavy  grain  feeding  than  was  true  of  the  lard  hog  of  the  past. 
But  as  long  as  the  United  States  shall  continue  to  grow  a  vast  yield  of 
com  far  in  excess  of  its  requirement  for  human  food,  it  is  also  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  corn  will  continue  to  be  used  very  extensively  in 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


391 


hog  feeding,  and  that  our  hogs  will  go  to  market  carrying  considerable 
finish  and  that  they  will  continue  to  be  valued  for  the  production  of 
both  meat  and  lard,  though  varying  in  the  percentage  yield  of  lard 
depending  on  the  supply  and  price  of  com  and  the  price  of  hogs. 

Some  questions  and  answers. — The  question  is  very  frequently 
asked  why  very  large  breeding  animals  are  demanded  by  breeders  of 
purebred  hogs  inasmuch  as  the  annual  crop  of  farm  pigs  is  sent  to 
market  weighing  around  225  to  250  pounds.  This  question  may  be 
answered  by  the  following  brief  statements,  many  of  which  summarize 
facts  presented  in  preceding  chapters: 

1.  In  farm  herds  which  produce  market  hogs  there  is  a  tendency 
toward  loss  of  size,  due  to  feeding  com  too  exclusively  and  also  due  in 


Fig.  143. — Excellent  type  in  the  herd  boar.  Duroc-Jersey  boar,  Great  Orion 
Sensation,  champion  at  the  National  Swine  Show  in  1919  and  1921.  Owned  by  Ed. 
M.  Kern,  Stanton,  Neb.  A  very  large,  heavy-boned,  masculine  type  of  boar  with 
great  length  and  smoothness. 


some  cases  to  lack  of  proper  care  and  management.  Corn  is  not  a 
good  feed  to  produce  bone,  muscle,  and  growth,  in  fact  it  is  a  very  poor 
feed  for  these  purposes.  Pigs  fed  too  exclusively  on  corn,  without  the 
addition  of  feeds  rich  in  protein  and  minerals,  do  not  grow  as  large  as 
they  would  otherwise.  They  also  lack  in  size  and  strength  of  bone. 
The  breeder  of  purebred  hogs  is  therefore  justified  in  selecting  for  very 
large  size,  length  of  body,  and  heavy  bone  in  order  that  he  may  supply 
the  farmer  with  boars  and  sows  that  will  assist  in  maintaining  good 
(but  not  necessarily  extreme)  size,  stretch,  and  bone  in  farm  herds. 


392  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

As  shown  in  the  following  paragraphs,  good  size  in  farm  herds  is  essen- 
tial to  the  production  of  the  most  profitable  market  hogs. 

2.  The  cheapest  gains  are  made  during  the  growing  period.  This 
is  shown  by  the  following  compilation  presented  by  Henry  and  Morri- 
son ^  which  summarizes  over  500  American  feeding  trials  with  more 
than  2,200  hogs: 

Pounds  feed  for 
Weight  of  hogs  100  pounds  gain 

100-150  pounds 437  pounds 

150-200  pounds 482  pounds 

200-250  pounds 498  pounds 

250-300  pounds 511  pounds 

300-350  pounds 535  pounds 

3.  It  is  true  of  all  kinds  of  farm  animals  that  the  larger  the 
breeding  stock  the  longer  the  growing  period  of  the  offspring  will  be, 
and  the  more  rapid  will  be  the  rate  of  increase  in  size  during  a  given 
period.  The  pig  from  large  parents  makes  more  growth  daily  and 
monthly  and  continues  to  grow  for  more  months  than  does  the  pig 
from  smaller  stock. 

4.  The  growthy  type  of  pig  is  therefore  "younger"  at  six  months 
of  age  than  the  smaller-tjrpe  pig.  This  is  true  because  at  six  months 
the  former  has  more  days  of  growth  ahead  of  him.  As  a  rule  the 
growthy  pig  is  also  younger  than  the  smaller  type  at  the  same  weight. 

5.  For  these  reasons  the  growthy  pig  makes  his  gains  at  some- 
what lower  cost  because  the  cheapest  gains  are  made  when  animals  are 
youngest. 

6.  If  the  breeding  stock  is  of  large  size,  the  pigs  will  be  growthy, 
will  gain  rapidly,  and  will  attain  market  weights  in  shortest  time. 

7.  Pigs  marketed  somewhat  in  advance  of  other  pigs  of  the  same 
age  usually  bring  a  better  price  than  those  marketed  later  at  times  of 
largest  receipts. 

8.  The  shorter  the  feeding  period  the  less  the  risk  and  the  less 
the  labor  cost  of  producing  pork.  The  man  who  raises  pigs  of  growthy 
type  has  them  off  to  market  while  his  neighbor  who  raises  smaller  hogs 
is  still  feeding  them  and  still  running  the  risk  of  loss  from  disease  and 
other  causes. 

9.  If  the  market  slumps  when  hogs  of  the  larger  type  are  ready 
for  market,  they  may  be  held  on  feed  and  will  continue  to  make  more 
efficient  use  of  feed  and  larger  gains  than  hogs  of  smaller  type.  This 
is  sometimes  a  distinct  advantage. 

Another  question  is  frequently  raised,  namely,  why  should  a  rather 
upstanding,  rangy  type  of  barrow  be  preferred  when  the  low-set,  com- 
pact type  is  demanded  in  the  steer  and  wether?     The  answer  is  that 

1  Feeds  and  Feeding,  1915,  p.  569. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


393 


hogs  fatten  more  readily  and  to  a  greater  degree  than  cattle  or  sheep . 
It  is  necessary  to  foster  a  blocky  type  in  the  latter  animals  because^ 
as  a  rule,  a  good  finish  at  the  desired  age  cannot  be  attained  without 
it.  This  is  especially  true  of  market  lambs  and  baby  beeves.  The 
rather  upstanding,  rangy  pig,  of  growthy  type,  if  possessed  of  good 
feeding  qualities  and  if  properly  fed,  can  be  given  a  good  finish  at  any 
weight  above  150  pounds.  It  is  acknowledged  that  an  upstanding 
form  and  ranginess  in  the  pig  do  not  alone  insure  efficiency  as  a  pork 
producer.  He  must  have  other  essential  points  in  type  as  well.  Never- 
theless, there  is  no  inconsistency  in  demanding  blockiness  in  beef  cattle 
and  sheep,  and  ranginess  and  a  rather  upstanding  form  in  hogs. 


Fig.  1  14,  G(Hi(l  type  ill  tln'  l.oar.  Chester  Wliito  Lour  <'liaiiipiMn  at  the 
Iowa  State  Fair,  owned  by  A.  B.  Somerville,  Monroe,  Iowa. 

Now  comes  a  third  question.  Is  it  not  true  that  the  packer  pre- 
fers a  hog  of  great  smoothness  and  great  refinement  of  bone?  Yes, 
this  is  true,  as  shown  by  the  study  of  the  hog  carcass.  Packers  do 
prefer  a  high-quality  hog.  But  they  offer  such  a  slight  premium  for 
this  kind  of  a  hog  as  compared  to  a  rangy  pig  with  medium  or  large 
bone  that  there  is  no  incentive  to  produce  the  packer's  type.  The 
advantage  of  large,  stretchy  breeding  stock  in  prolificacy  and  of  their 
pigs  in  economy  of  gains  more  than  counterbalances  the  very  slight 
premium  paid  for  market-topping  hogs. 

The  modem  barrow  of  stretchy,  growthy  type  has  no  difficulty  in 
gaining  admission  to  the  butcher  hog  class  where  he  competes  with  the 
packer-type  hog,  and  we  have  seen  in  the  preceding  chapter  that  in 


394  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

November,  December,  January,  and  February  when  the  spring  pig 
crop  is  marketed,  and  again  in  May  and  June  when  most  fall  pigs  are 
marketed,  there  is  very  little  spread  in  the  price  of  butcher  hogs  of  all 
weights.  Usually  at  these  seasons  the  entire  spread  in  price  of  all 
butcher  hogs  of  the  same  weight  is  only  10  to  25  cents  per  cwt.  The  • 
market-topping  load  with  its  fancy  quality  often  sells  only  5  or  10  cents 
higher  than  the  bulk  of  hogs  sold  that  day.  The  value  of  the  market 
hog  is  determined  to  a  much  greater  degree  by  his  weight  alone,  with 
much  less  regard  to  both  quality  and  finish  than  is  true  of  cattle  or 
sheep,  and  that  is  why  the  most  profitable  type  of  lard  hog  is  essentially 
that  type  in  which  the  sows  are  most  prolific  and  in  which  the  pigs  make 
their  gains  most  economically.  Type  in  hogs  is  almost  entirely  a  matter 
of  meeting  producers'  requirements,  whereas  type  in  cattle  and  sheep 
must  give  much  more  consideration  to  factors  which  the  packer  desires 
and  for  which  he  pays  a  premium  large  enough  to  insure  their  incorpora- 
tion in  the  type  aimed  at  by  cattle  and  sheep  producers. 

Lard-hog  type  does  include,  however,  many  points  desired  by  the 
packer  which  are  incorporated  without  in  any  way  lessening  economy 
of  production.  These  are  smoothness,  freedom  from  coarseness,  sym- 
metry, and  good  condition.  All  these  points  desired  by  packers  may 
be  included  and  are  in  fact  demanded  in  the  modem  type  of  lard  hog 
without  lessening  his  efficiency  in  economy  of  production. 

As  indicating  that  the  importance  of  size  in  hogs  is  now  generally 
recognized,  it  may  be  stated  that  all  of  the  breeds  classed  as  lard  hogs 
in  the  United  States  have  been  modified  in  recent  years  so  as  to  con- 
form more  closely  to  the  so-called  "big  type." 

Charles  D.  Kirkpatrick  of  Keokuk  County,  Iowa,  states  ^  that  he 
raises  about  400  hogs  for  market  annually,  and  he  compares  his  results 
with  big-type  hogs  in  recent  years  with  his  earlier  experiences  with  the 
smaller  and  finer  type  then  in  vogue.  He  concludes  an  excellent 
article  as  follows: 

"The  big  type  has  proved  fully  as  important  on  the  sow  side  of  the 
herd  as  in  the  feeding  pen.  The  farrowing  troubles  of  the  old-fash- 
ioned, thick-built  sows  caused  a  deal  of  disagreeable  work,  and  fre- 
quently were  the  cause  of  heavy  losses.  At  present  there  is  neither  a 
pair  of  forceps  nor  a  snare  in  my  hog-house  equipment;  I  haven't 
helped  a  sow  deliver  a  pig  this  season,  and  I  haven't  had  a  veterinarian 
on  the  place  since  a  year  ago  last  spring.  So  far  this  year  the  average 
litter  saved  to  weaning  time  is  nearly  seven. 

"Length  of  legs  and  stretch  of  body,  of  course,  can  be  perverted 
into  a  gun  barrel  type  of  hog.  A  weasel  is  not  my  ideal  of  conforma- 
tion for  a  herd  boar.     But  for  my  part  I  have  no  quarrel  with  the 


Breeder's  Gazette,  Dec.  14,  1922,  p.  835. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  395 

daylight  under  the  show  champions  because  they  can  get  their  poster- 
ity over  the  scales  to  a  speedy  and  profitable  sale  of  pork." 

Selection  of  breeding  stock. — The  points  which  should  receive 
particular  attention  in  selecting  hogs  for  breeding  purposes  are  (1) 
size,  (2)  feeding  capacity,  (3)  constitution  and  vigor,  (4)  early  matur- 
ity, (5)  strength  of  back,  legs,  pasterns,  and  feet,  (6)  quality,  (7) 
breeding  qualities,  (8)  uniformity  of  type,  and  (9)  ancestry. 

1.  The  most  profitable  hog  is  one  that  inherits  ability  to  grow  to 
large  size,  but  which  will  fatten  if  desired  long  before  the  limit  of  growth 
is  reached.  It  is  desirable,  therefore,  to  set  the  standard  for  matured 
weight  as  high  as  is  consistent  with  proper  form,  early  maturity,  and 
quality.  For  boars  in  high  condition,  the  standard  may  be  set  at  800 
pounds  or  over  without  necessarily  sacrificing  other  desirable  qualities. 
Sows  in  high  condition  should  weigh  not  less  than  600  pounds.  By 
proper  selection  and  by  improved  methods  of  feeding  and  management, 
these  weights  may  be  equalled  or  surpassed.  It  is  not  desirable  to 
keep  breeding  stock  in  high  condition,  but  the  term  "breeding  condi- 
tion" has  such  a  variable  meaning  that  it  cannot  be  used  satisfactorily 
as  a  basis  for  weights.  In  breeding  condition,  boars  and  sows  may 
weigh  considerably  less  than  800  pounds  and  600  pounds  respectively, 
but  they  should  have  enough  size  of  frame  and  capacity  for  taking  on 
flesh  to  enable  them  to  reach  these  weights  if  they  were  fed  to  high 
condition. 

2.  Feeding  capacity  is  indicated  by  length,  depth,  width,  and 
fullness  of  middle.  Some  degree  of  paunchiness  may  be  accepted  as 
evidence  of  feeding  capacity.  A  wide  head,  prominent  poll,  well- 
developed  jaw,  a  mild  eye,  and  a  short  neck  are  further  indications  of 
a  good  feeder. 

3.  Constitution  and  vigor  are  indicated  by  width  and  depth  of 
chest,  a  large  heart-girth,  good  spring  of  rib,  large  feeding  capacity, 
and  a  strong  appetite.  A  general  appearance  of  strength  and  rugged- 
ness  without  coarseness,  an  active  walk,  a  bright,  open  eye,  a  healthy 
skin,  and  abundant,  glossy  hair  are  other  evidences  of  constitution, 
thrift,  and  vigor. 

4.  An  early  maturing  hog  is  one  that  makes  a  fast  growth,  yet 
can  be  fattened  off  at  market  weight.  Such  hogs  are  ready  for  market 
in  quickest  time  and  at  lowest  cost.  This  quality  is  possessed  in 
greatest  degree  by  hogs  descended  from  breeding  stock  of  large  size 
and  ample  bone  that  are  long  bodied,  deep  of  middle,  reasonably  wide, 
full  made,  and  well  developed  in  all  parts,  combining  size,  stretch, 
vigor,  and  good  feeding  qualities,  without  coarseness. 

5.  A  low  back  is  a  bad  fault  in  a  breeding  animal.  It  is  a  weak- 
ness which  is  as  likely  to  be  transmitted  to  offspring  as  any  other 


396 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


good  or  bad  quality.  The  boar  should  stand  on  large,  strong  bone, 
this  being  one  evidence  of  masculinity,  but  extremely  large,  rough  bone, 
covered  with  a  thick,  puffy  skin  is  undesirable,  indicating  coarseness. 
The  breeding  sow  should  show  greater  refinement  of  bone  than  the 
boar,  yet  it  should  be  amply  sufficient  to  sustain  not  only  her  weight 
but  also  the  added  weight  imposed  by  pregnancy  and  large  litters. 
Fine  shank  bones  are  not  objectionable  because  they  are  liable  to  be 
fractured  by  the  weight  of  the  sow,  but  because  fine  bone  is  associated 
with  small,  weak  tendons  and  ligaments  which  permit  the  pastern  to 
drop  down  and  the  toes  to  spread  apart,  thus  making  the  legs  weak 
and  greatly  lessening  the  usefulness  of  the  animal.  Proper  feed  during 
the  growing  period  and  sufficient  exercise  are  other  factors  which  have 


Fig.  145. — Good  type  in  the  brood  sow.  Hampshire  sow,  Gloria  2d,  champion 
at  the  Iowa  State  Fair.  Owned  by  Russell  Yates,  Palo,  Iowa.  Note  her  length, 
depth  of  chest  and  middle,  smoothness,  quality,  and  feminine  character. 


much  to  do  with  the  strength  of  feet  and  legs.  Sickled  hind  legs, 
bowed-out  hocks,  inbent  knees,  and  other  deformities  should  be  avoid- 
ed, particularly  in  selecting  a  boar. 

6.  A  reasonable  degree  of  quality,  as  indicated  by  smoothness  of 
form  and  flesh  and  by  trimness  of  appearance,  is  something  of  an 
evidence  of  good  breeding  and  must  be  shown  in  breeding  stock  if  it 
is  to  be  shown  in  their  pigs  on  the  market.  The  butcher  desires  a 
very  high  degree  of  quality  and  refinement  in  head,  ear,  hide,  hair,  bone, 
and  fleshing,  but  does  not  pay  enough  premium  for  it  to  justify  the 
producer  in  emphasizing  quality  too  strongly.     The  breeder  should 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  397 

select  for  as  much  quality  in  breeding  stock  as  may  be  had  without 
sacrifice  of  proper  size,  constitution,  and  size  of  bone. 

The  skin  over  the  shoulders  of  mature  boars  is  thicker  and  heavier 
than  on  sows  or  barrows.  This  character,  called  the  "shields,"  was 
a  highly  useful  feature  in  the  wild  boar  as  a  protection  in  fighting. 
The  wild  boar  has  transmitted  this  character  in  greater  or  less  degree 
to  his  domesticated  descendants.  In  some  instances  the  thickening 
and  hardening  of  the  skin  is  so  great  as  to  produce  pronounced  callouses, 
and  these  are  objectionable.  A  smooth  shoulder  is  desired  in  the  boar 
as  well  as  in  the  sow  and  barrow. 

7.  Great  variation  in  prolificacy  exists  between  individual  sows 
of  the  same  breed.  There  are  also  some  rather  marked  differences  be- 
tween breeds.  The  number  of  pigs  per  litter  varies  from  1  to  16  or 
more,  but  with  good  management  is  usually  from  6  to  10  and  under 
ordinary  farm  conditions  averages  about  7  or  8.  It  is  well  to  remember, 
however,  that  it  is  the  number  of  pigs  raised,  rather  than  the  number 
farrowed,  which  is  most  important.  Sows  that  are  irregular  breeders, 
difficult  to  get  in  pig,  not  prolific,  poor  sucklers,  or  that  lie  on  their 
pigs  should  be  sent  to  market.  Short-middled  sows  of  the  chunky  type 
are  usually  lacking  in  prolificacy  and  milking  qualities.  Size,  stretch, 
roominess,  and  a  mild  disposition  are  essential  to  good  brood  sows. 
Their  udders  should  include  12  or  more  well-developed  glands  and  teats. 

Masculine,  vigorous  boars  are  quick  and  sure  breeders.  Mother- 
ly or  matronly-looking  sows  are  the  most  satisfactory  breeders  and 
best  mothers. 

8.  The  breeding  herd  should  be  kept  as  uniform  in  size,  form, 
color,  and  other  points  as  possible  in  order  that  the  pigs  may  acquire 
a  finish  at  about  the  same  time  and  present  a  uniform  and  attractive 
appearance  in  the  feed-lot  and  on  the  market. 

9.  A  good  ancestry  back  of  a  young  boar  or  sow  is  the  best 
possible  guarantee  that  it  will  develop  into  a  useful  breeding  animal. 
Between  two  hogs  equal  in  individuality,  one  the  best  pig  from  a  poor 
litter  and  a  poor  ancestry,  and  the  other  the  worst  pig  from  a  good 
litter  and  a  good  ancestry,  there  is  almost  certain  to  be  a  marked  ad- 
vantage in  favor  of  the  latter  as  a  breeder.  Particularly  in  selecting 
boars  is  it  important  to  buy  from  a  good  herd,  and  to  select  pigs  from 
a  large  litter,  a  good  litter,  a  good  sire,  and  a  good  dam.  In  other 
words  an  effort  should  be  made  to  obtain  prolific  stock  of  good  type 
and  with  an  inheritance  that  insures  ability  to  breed  on.  In  breeding 
for  the  market,  the  sows  should  be  purebreds  or  high  grades. '     None 


iPor  definitions  of  purebred  and  grade  and  for  discussions  of  the  importance 
of  good  ancestry,  the  utility  value  of  purebred  live  stock,  and  the  grading  process, 
see  Chapter  IX. 


398  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

other  than  a  good  purebred  boar  should  be  used  on  any  herd.  In  hogs, 
as  in  other  stock,  the  sire  is  at  least  half  of  the  herd. 

The  1920  census  reported  that  3.4  per  cent  of  the  hogs  in  the 
United  States  on  January  1,  1920,  Were  registered  purebreds.  ^ 

The  sow  may  be  bred  when  8  months  old,  farrowing  her  first  litter 
when  12  months  old.  If  well  fed  and  cared  for,  she  will  raise  two  litters 
per  year,  though  many  breeders  believe  that  better  results  are  obtained 
if  the  sow  raises  one  litter  per  year,  or  at  most  three  litters  in  two  years. 
The  average  duration  of  pregnancy  in  swine  is  114  days.  Boars  8  to 
10  months  old  may  be  used  on  a  few  sows  if  they  are  well  developed 
for  their  age  and  well  fed.  A  mature  boar  will  breed  one  sow  a  day, 
or  from  30  to  40  sows  during  the  breeding  season. 

With  no  other  kind  of  live  stock  is  there  practiced  so  much  mixing 
of  breeds  and  cross  breeding  as  in  the  breeding  of  hogs  for  the  market. 
It  is  very  commonly  believed  that  by  crossing  a  boar  of  one  breed 
upon  sows  of  another  breed,  more  vigorous  and  growthy  offspring  will 
result.  While  there  is  no  serious  criticism  to  be  made  against  such  a 
method  so  far  as  the  first  cross  is  concerned,  it  invariably  happens  that 
if  this  policy  is  followed  up  and  further  crossing  and  mixing  is  resorted 
to,  a  variety  of  shapes  and  colors  is  presented  that  is  most  unattrac- 
tive as  compared  with  a  bunch  of  hogs  possessing  good  uniformity. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  it  will  be  most  profitable  to  pick  out  one  of 
the  standard  breeds  of  hogs  and  stick  to  that  breed  year  after  year. 
If  this  is  done  there  need  be  no  lack  of  vigor  in  the  offspring  if  the 
parent  stock  is  selected  with  due  care  as  to  constitution  and  vigor. 


1  Nearly  60  per  cent  of  these  were  in  the  corn  belt.  The  ten  leading  states  in 
numbers  of  registered  purebred  hogs,  in  order  of  rank,  were  Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
Missouri,  Nebraska,  Minnesota,  Ohio,  South  Dakota,  Texas,  and  Kansas. 


PART  IV-HORSES 


INTRODUCTION 

"From  remotest  ages  he  has  come  with  man,  side  by  side,  in 
the  glory  and  achievements  of  the  white  race.  In  all  the  dar- 
ings and  doings  of  the  Saxon,  wherever  countries  were  to  be 
conquered,  battles  fought,  and  the  banner  of  Britain  carried 
round  the  world,  wherever  has  been  a  footprint,  there  also  was 
the  hoof-beat." — John  Trotwood  Moore  in  The  Gift  of  the 
Grass. 

For  centuries  the  horse  has  been  a  faithful  servant  of  man  in  the 
capacity  of  a  burden  bearer.  As  compared  with  other  domesticated 
animals,  the  horse  is  peculiar  in  his  relation  to  man,  for  he  is  valuable 
on  account  of  his  ability  to  do  work  and  not  because  he  furnishes  a 
tangible  product  useful  as  food  or  otherwise.  It  is  his  athletic  ability 
which  makes  the  horse  useful. 

None  other  of  our  domestic  animals  occupies  as  important  a  place 
in  the  economy  of  things  as  does  the  horse;  if  all  the  horses  were  sudden- 
ly taken  from  the  nations  of  the  world,  agriculture,  business,  and  com- 
merce would  be  seriously  impaired  and  we  would  soon  be  in  a  state  of 
famine.  Consider  the  vast  number  of  horses  in  use  on  farms,  on  city 
streets,  on  country  roads,  in  armies,  and  for  numerous  pleasure  pur- 
poses, such  as  riding,  driving,  racing  in  harness  and  under  saddle, 
hunting,  and  polo.  We  could  give  up  any  of  the  other  domesticated 
animals  with  much  less  serious  results,  and  this  in  spite  of  the  advent 
and  improvement  of  the  automobile,  motor  truck,  and  tractor,  and 
their  wide  use  at  the  present  time. 

The  horse  may  be  said  to  be  a  locomotive  which  consumes  hay 
and  grain  instead  of  coal.  He  is  self-feeding,  self-controlling,  and  self- 
reproducing,  and  is  at  the  same  time  a  very  efficient  motor.  Farmers 
who  use  horses  may  be  compared  to  the  engineer  who  operates  a  motor. 
Farmers  who  breed  horses  may  be  compared  to  the  manufacturer  of 
motors.  No  man  can  manufacture  or  operate  a  motor  with  real 
success  unless  he  understands  its  construction,  the  importance  of  its 
various  parts,  their  strength  or  weakness,  and  their  relation  to  one 
another.  No  man  can  learn  the  construction  of  a  motor  by  studying 
its  exterior  only;  he  must  take  it  apart  and  study  the  various  parts, 
and  then  put  them  together  again.  Then  he  must  put  it  in  motion 
and  study  the  action  of  the  various  levers,  pulleys,  and  springs,  in 
order  that  he  may  know  the  location  of  weaknesses  and  at  what  points 

399 


400  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

the  most  wear  comes.  Knowing  these  things,  he  can  manufacture  a 
motor  of  high  efficiency,  or,  operating  one,  he  can  obtain  from  it  the 
greatest  amount  of  work  with  least  danger  of  injuring  the  machine. 
Hence  we  see  how  important  is  a  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the 
horse  as  a  basis  for  the  study  of  types  of  horses  and  the  requirements 
and  capabilities  of  each  type. 

It  is  not  possible  to  develop  a  good  judge  of  any  kind  of  live  stock 
by  teaching  simply  what  to  look  for  in  an  animal.  A  mere  description 
of  parts  or  points  is  not  sufficient.  The  student  wants  to  know  why 
certain  things  are  desirable  in  an  animal,  and  why  certain  other  things 
are  undesirable.  He  must  know  the  "why"  of  each  point  if  he  is  to 
value  each  point  properly  and  put  emphasis  where  it  belongs.  This 
is  especially  true  in  learning  to  judge  horses.  No  matter  how  care- 
fully the  points  to  be  looked  for  in  feet  and  legs  are  described,  the 
student  cannot  recognize  the  importance  of  these  parts  and  know  what 
constitutes  a  first-class  foot  and  leg,  unless  he  has  a  fairly  good  idea 
of  their  anatomy  and  physiology.  In  the  pages  which  follow,  the 
writer  has,  therefore,  given  considerable  attention  to  some  of  the  essen- 
tial features  of  horse  anatomy  before  entering  upon  a  description  of 
the  various  types  and  market  classes  of  horses. 

Definitions  of  Horse  Terms 

Stallion. — Breeding  male. 

Mare. — The  female. 

Colt. — A  young  stallion. 

Filly. — A  young  mare. 

Foal. — Colt  or  filly  under  one  year  old. 

Weanling. — A  weaned  foal. 

Gelding. — Unsexed  male,  castrated  under  two  years  old.  The  best 
age  to  castrate  colts  is  at  one  year  old  after  they  have  been  on  pasture 
a  few  weeks  but  before  fly-time.  In  the  corn  belt  the  best  time  to 
castrate  is  the  latter  part  of  May. 

Stag. — Unsexed  male,  castrated  when  mature  or  so  far  advanced 
toward  maturity  that  masculinity  is  plainly  evident  in  head  and  neck. 
This  constitutes  coarseness  in  a  horse  for  harness  or  saddle  use. 

Yeld  mare. — A  mare  that  has  not  raised  a  foal  during  the  season; 
a  dry  mare. 

Show  Yard  Classification  by  Ages 

The  base  date  for  classifying  horses  by  ages  is  January  1,  and  the 
classes  by  ages  are  as  follows:  The  foal  class  includes  only  those  that 
were  foaled  on  or  after  January  1  of  the  year  shown.  All  foals  become 
yearlings  on  January  1  of  the  year  following  the  date  foaled.  One 
year  later  they  become  two-year-olds,  the  next  year  three-year-olds,  and 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  401 

the  next  year  they  enter  the  four  years  old  and  over  (aged)  class.  Some 
of  the  larger  shows  provide  separate  classes  for  four-year-olds,  and 
when  this  is  done  the  aged  class  is  for  animals  five  years  old  and  over. 

Junior  champion. — Best  animal  under  three  years. 

Senior  champion. — Best  animal  three  years  old  or  over. 

Champion. — Best  animal  any  age. 

Grand  champion. — Best  animal  any  age  or  breed.  The  term 
"grand  champion"  is  also  frequently  applied  to  champions. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
BRIEF  ANATOMICAL  STUDY  OF  THE  HORSE 

In  all  animal  life  the  cell  is  the  structural  and  functional  unit.  A 
tissue  is  a  collection  of  similarly  differentiated  cells.  A  number  of 
tissues  grouped  together  form  an  organ.  The  body  is  an  aggregation 
of  organs.  The  systems  of  organs  are  seven  in  number.  They  are 
(1)  skeletal,  (2)  muscular,  (3)  digestive,  (4)  respiratory,  (5)  genito- 
urinary, (6)  nervous,  and  (7)  integumentary. 

Skeletal  system. — The  skeletal  system  is  important  as  it  largely 
determines  the  conformation  of  the  horse.  The  divisions  of  the 
skeleton  are  (1)  head,  (2)  neck,  (3)  trunk,  and  (4)  legs.  The  head 
consists  of  numerous  bones,  mostly  fiat,  united  by  sutures  which  gradu- 
ally undergo  obliteration  with  age.  The  lower  jaws  are  strong  and  in 
each  jaw  there  are  six  molar  teeth  (24  in  all).  Twelve  of  these  are 
temporary — three  in  each  jaw.  There  are  also  six  incisors  in  the  upper 
and  six  in  the  lower  jaws,  all  of  which  are  temporary  and  are  entirely 
replaced  by  the  time  the  animal  is  43^  years  old. 

The  vertebral  column  is  a  chain  of  54  to  56  irregular  bones  (verte- 
brae) extending  from  skull  to  end  of  tail.  There  are  seven  cervical 
(neck)  vertebrae,  18  dorsal  (back),  6  lumbar  (loin),  5  sacral  (croup), 
and  18  or  20  caudal  (tail)  vertebrae.  The  3rd,  4th,  and  5th  dorsal 
vertebrae  have  the  highest  spines  which  form  the  withers.  (See  Fig. 
146.) 

There  are  18  pairs  of  ribs,  8  of  which  are  true  and  10  false.  The 
8  true  pairs  join  the  8  segments  of  the  sternum  or  breast  bone.  The 
7th  or  8th  ribs  are  longest.  There  is  no  collar  bone  (clavicle)  as  in 
man,  and  the  fore  legs  are  not  attached  to  the  trunk  but  are  connected 
by  intervening  muscles.  The  hind  legs  are  united  to  the  trunk  by 
the  pelvic  girdle  which  is  composed  of  three  segments  on  each  side. 

Muscular  system. — The  horse  comprises  a  large  number  of  sys- 
tems of  levers  represented  in  the  bones  and  joints,  each  supplied  with 
a  system  of  muscles  which  furnish  the  power.  Muscles  exert  a  force 
in  only  one  way,  and  that  by  shortening,  giving  a  pull.  For  this 
reason  muscles  are  arranged  in  pairs,  as  illustrated  by  the  biceps  and 
triceps  which  move  the  forearm  in  man.  The  flexor  muscles  are  al- 
ways inside  the  joint  and  the  extensors  outside.  The  theory  has  been 
advanced  that  the  shortening  of  muscles  is  due  to  a  change  in  the  form 
of  the  muscular  cell  from  an  elongated  form  to  one  nearly  round  when 
stimulated  by  nerve  action.     Muscles  act  through  very  short  distances 

402 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


403 


and  upon  the  short  end  of  levers  composing  the  animal  frame.  Acting 
in  this  way,  speed  and  distance  are  gained  with  a  corresponding  reduc- 
tion in  the  magnitude  of  the  force.  Because  muscles  are  able  to  act 
only  through  very  short  distances,  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  act  upon 
the  short  end  of  the  levers  in  order  that  sufficiently  rapid  movement 
may  be  gained. 

The  muscular  system  obtains  its  maximum  development  in  the 
horse,  and  upon  the  excellence  of  this,  beauty  of  conformation  largely 
depends.  Especially  is  this  latter  true  of  the  neck  and  hindquarters. 
There  are  no  muscles  below  the  knees  and  hocks — only  their  tendinous 
prolongations.     The  first  muscle  under  the  skin  almost  covers  the 


Fig.  146. — Skeleton  of  the  horse.  This  illustration  shows  the  location  of  the 
bones  and  the  degree  to  which  the  skeleton  and  the  muscle  influence  the  form. 

entire  body  and  is  the  one  that  enables  the  animal  to  shake  flies  or  any 
irritating  foreign  substance  off  its  skin. 

Digestive  system.— The  tongue  is  small  as  compared  with  that  of 
the  ox.  The  capacity  of  the  stomach  is  small,  holding  between  3  and 
4  gallons,  while  the  stomach  of  the  ox  holds  30  to  40  gallons.  But 
the  small  size  of  the  organ  is  compensated  for  by  the  large  size  and 
capacity  of  the  intestines  which  hold  twice  that  of  the  ox.  The  large 
intestine  has  a  capacity  of  about  20  gallons,  and  the  small  one  12 
gallons.     The  liver  is  large,  as  are  also  the  kidneys. 

Respiratory  system. — The  respiratory  organs  are  well  developed, 
and  comprise  the  nasal  cavities,  the  larynx,  the  trachea,  the  bronchial 


404  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

tubes,  and  lungs.  The  heart  is  large  and  four  chambered,  and  the 
blood  vessels  are  large  and  have  strong,  thick  walls.  Thus  is  the  horse 
well  fitted  for  his  athletic  life. 

Nervous  system. — The  nervous  system  of  the  horse  is  well  develop- 
ed and  comprises  the  brain,  spinal  cord,  and  branching  nerves.  The 
horse  differs  from  a  mere  machine  in  that  he  is  largely  capable  of  guid- 
ing his  own  movements  without  aid  from  his  driver.  Training  ac- 
complishes much  in  this  regard,  but  the  less  a  horse  is  possessed  of 
intelligence  and  nervous  control,  the  less  he  is  automatic  as  a  motor, 
and  the  more  he  becomes  dependent  upon  his  driver. 

Integumentary  system. — The  hair  or  coat  is  shed  in  the  spring 
and  autumn,  except  that  of  the  mane  and  tail  which  is  permanent. 
There  are  both  sweat  glands  and  sebaceous  glands  in  the  skin,  but  the 
former  are  practically  absent  from  the  limbs. 


\- 


\ 


Fig.  147. — Bones  of  the  fore  leg.  1,  Scapula;  2,  humerus;  3,  radius  and  ulna; 
4,  seven  or  eight  carpal  bones;  5,  cannon  bone  and  two  splint  bones;  6,  two  sesamoid 
bones;  7,  large  pastern  bone;  8,  small  pastern  bone;  9,  navicular  bone;  10,  coffin  bone. 

Anatomy  of  the  Fore  Leg 

From  the  top  downward,  the  bones  of  the  fore  leg  are  as  indicated 
in  the  accompanying  diagram.  The  fore  leg  is  composed  of  a  scapula 
(or  shoulder  blade)  which  is  articulated  to  the  humerus  (or  arm)  by 
a  ball-and-socket  joint,  and  the  arm  in  turn  articulates  with  the  radius 
by  a  hinge  joint.  The  lower  end  of  the  radius  rests  upon  the  upper 
row  of  the  carpal  bones  of  which  there  are  7  or  8  in  the  horse,  corre- 
sponding to  the  wrist  in  man.  Below  the  carpus  (knee)  is  the  large 
metacarpal  (or  cannon)  bone,  and  articulated  with  the  back  of  it  are 
two  slender  rods  of  bones — the  small  metacarpal  (or  splint)  bones. 
The  lower  end  of  the  large  cannon  bone  forms  a  hinge  with  the  first 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


405 


phalanx  (or  large  pastern  bone),  which  is  followed  by  the  second 
phalanx  (or  small  pastern  bone),  and  then  the  third  phalanx  (or  coffin 
bone),  the  last  named  and  half  of  the  small  pastern  bone  being  enclosed 
within  the  hoof.  In  addition  to  these,  at  the  articulation  between  the 
cannon  and  the  large  pastern  bone  are  two  small  bones,  known  as  the 
"sesamoids,"  while  at  the  back  of  the  coffin  joint  there  is  a  small  bow- 
shaped  bone,  known  as  the  "navicular,"  which  is  frequently  the  seat 
of  disease. 

The  bones  are  held  together  by  ligaments.  Tendons  are  similar 
in  character  to  ligaments,  but  differ  in  that  they  join  muscle  to  bone. 

The  scapula,  humerus,  and  radius  and  ulna  are  enclosed  in  heavy 
muscles  which  move  them.     There  are  no  muscles  about  the  knee  and 


i; 

' 

ll 

ii  /  /■ 

■i  / 

1 

a 

1 

1 — ~I-M 

-B 

e 

nil 

-/'A/ 

c 

L 

^^cc^ 

%v^^ 

SM\, 

/^^.'^  \ 

Fig.  148. — ^Fore  leg  from  knee  to 
ground,  showing  the  bones,  ligaments, 
and  tendons.  1,  Suspensory  ligament; 
2,  inferior  sesamoid  ligaments;  3,  branch 
of  suspensory  ligament;  4,  flexor  tendon 
of  foot;  5,  flexor  tendon  of  pastern; 
6,  extensor  tendon;  7,  splint  bone;  8,  can- 
non bone;  9,  sesamoid  bones;  10,  large 
pastern  bone;  11,  small  pastern  bone; 
12,  coffin  bone;  13,  navicular  bone. 


Fig.  149. — Bones,  tendons,  and  liga- 
ments of  the  fore  leg.  1,  Splint  bone; 
2,  cannon  bone;  3,  suspensory  ligament; 
4,  flexor  tendon  of  foot;  5,  flexor  tendon 
of  pastern. 


the  parts  below.  Instead,  long  tendons  pass  down  from  the  muscles 
above,  thus  connecting  the  power  with  the  levers  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  leg.  Some  very  important  ligaments  hold  the  bones  below  the 
knee  in  proper  relation  to  one  another.  These  ligaments  are  very 
strong  elastic  cords.  The  lower  leg  moves  when  the  muscles  exert  a 
pull  on  their  tendons,  which  are  likewise  strong  and  elastic.  The 
tendons  and  ligaments  of  the  fore  leg  are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
drawings.  The  long  ligament  from  fetlock  to  knee  is  the  suspensory 
ligament.     It  supports  the  fetlock. 


406 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Ln^E  Stock 


Anatomy  of  the  Hind  Leg 

The  hind  leg  consists  of  the  femur  (or  thigh  bone)  which  is  the 
largest  in  the  body  and  articulates  below  with  the  tibia  and  also  with 
the  patella  (or  knee  cap).  The  hock  is  composed  of  six  bones  which 
may  be  divided  into  two  sets,  each  having  a  purpose  of  its  own.  One 
group  of  four  small  bones  (tarsals),  arranged  in  two  rows  and  resting 
on  the  head  of  the  cannon,  are  united  together  and  to  adjacent  bones 
by  short,  powerful  ligaments,  and  so  close  is  the  union  that  the  move- 
ment of  one  bone  upon  another  is  reduced  to  a  simple  gliding  action 
of  very  limited  degree.  Though  slight,  this  movement  is  of  much  im- 
portance in  breaking  the  jar  communicated  to  this  joint  when  the 
horse  is  in  action.  Above  the  small  tarsal  bones  are  two  larger  bones, 
the  astragalus  and  calcaneus,  as  shown  in  Fig.  150. 


Fig.  150. — Bones  of  the  hock.  A,  Tibia;  B,  calcaneus;  C,  astragalus;  D, 
tarsals;  E,  cannon  bone;  F,  splint  bone. 

To  the  calcaneus  is  attached  the  strong  tendon  known  as  the 
"tendon  of  Achilles."  By  means  of  it  the  muscles  above  exert  a  power- 
ful pull  upon  the  hock  joint,  producing  extension  of  the  joint.  This 
is  the  principal  means  of  the  horse's  propulsion.  The  knob-like  end 
of  the  calcaneus  (to  which  the  tendon  attaches)  forms  the  point  of  the 
hock.  In  some  instances  the  pull  upon  the  hock  has  been  great  enough 
to  produce  a  fracture  of  this  bone. 

Sometimes  a  diseased  condition  is  brought  about  by  the  ossifica- 
tion into  one  mass  of  some  or  all  of  the  bones  of  the  hock.  Thia  is 
called  a  "bone  spavin"  and  is  a  serious  unsoundness  because  it  destroys 
the  important  gliding  action  of  the  tarsals,  stiffens  the  joint,  and  often 
causes  lameness. 

The  parts  below  the  hock  are  similar  in  structure  to  those  below 
the  knee. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


407 


The  skeletons  of  man  and  horse  compared  show  striking  similarity, 
and  at  some  points  rather  marked  variation  and  difference  in  propor- 
tionment  of  parts.  The  horse's  knee  corresponds  to  man's  wrist.  The 
bones  below  the  horse's  knee  correspond  to  those  beyond  man's  wrist. 
Following  is  a  comparison  of  the  bones  and  parts  of  the  fore  and  hind 
legs  of  the  horse  with  the  arm  and  leg  of  man: 


Fore  Leg  of  Horse 

Arm  of  Man 

Parts 

Bones 

Parts 

Bones 

Shoulder 

Scapula 

Shoulder 

Scapula  and  clavicle 

Arm 

Humerus 

Arm 

Humerus 

Forearm 

Radius  and  ulna 

Forearm 

Radius  and  ulna 

Knee 

7  or  8  carpals 

Wrist 

7  carpals 

Cannon 

3  metacarpals 

Palm 

5  metacarpals 
[Thumb— 2  bones 

Pastern  and  foot 

1st,  2nd,  and  3rd 
phalanges 

Fingers 

]Other  fingers— 3 
1,       bones 

Hoof 

Finger  nails 

Hind  Leg  of  Horse 

Leg  of  Man 

Parts 

Bones 

Parts 

Bones 

Croup 

Ilium,  ischium, 
and  pubis 

Pelvis 

Ilium,  ischium, 
and  pubis 

Thigh 

Femur 

Thigh 

Femur 

Stifle 

Patella 

Knee 

Patella 

Gaskin 

Tibia  and  fibula 

Calf 

Tibia  and  fibula 

Hock 

6  tarsals 

Ankle 

8  tarsals 

Cannon 

3  metatarsals 

Instep 

5  metatarsals 

Pastern  and  foot 

1st,  2nd,  and  3rd 

Toes 

/Great  toe— 2  bones 

phalanges 

\Other  toes— 3  bones 

Hoof 

Toe  nails 

The  accompanjnng  drawing  makes  clear  the  comparison  between 
the  hind  leg  of  the  horse  and  the  foot  of  man. 


Fig.  151. — Bones  of  the  human  foot  and  hind  leg  of  horse  compared.  A, 
Tibia;  B,  astragalus;  C,  calcaneus;  D  and  E,  small  tarsals;  F  and  G,  metatarsals; 
1,  2,  and  3,  first,  second,  and  third  phalanges. 


408  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Anatomy  of  the  Foot^ 

The  foot  is  not  a  mere  block  of  horn,  but  is  a  composite  structure 
made  up  of  particular  parts,  each  with  a  certain  work  to  perform. 
There  is  an  old  saying,  very  full  of  truth,  "No  foot,  no  horse."  A 
knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the  foot  is  very  essential  in  learning  to 
judge  horses. 

The  exterior  of  the  foot  may  be  divided  into  five  parts,  each  in- 
cluding one-fifth  of  the  circumference.  These  are  the  toe,  laterals,  and 
quarters. 

The  bones  of  the  foot  and  pastern  are  four  in  number,  three  of 
which — the  long  pastern,  short  pastern,  and  coffin  bone — placed  end 
to  end  form  a  continuous  straight  column  passing  downward  and  for- 
ward from  the  fetlock  joint  to  the  ground.  A  small  accessory  bone, 
the  navicular  bone,  lies  crosswise  in  the  foot  behind  the  cofRn  joint, 
enlarging  the  joint  surface.     (See  Fig.  153.) 

Tendons  and  ligaments. — The  extensor  tendon  of  the  toe  passes 
down  the  front  of  the  pastern  and  attaches  to  the  top  and  front  of  the 


Fig.  152.— Exterior  of  the  hoof,  showing  division  into  toe,  laterals,  and  quarters. 

coffin  bone.  The  outer  "branch  of  the  suspensory  ligament  attaches  to 
the  tendon  a  short  distance  above  this  point.  The  flexor  tendon  of 
the  foot  passes  down  between  the  heels,  glides  over  the  under  surface 
of  the  navicular  bone,  and  attaches  to  the  under  surface  of  the  coffin 
bone.  The  bones  of  the  foot  are  held  together  by  powerful  short 
ligaments. 

The  elastic  tissues  of  the  foot  include  the  lateral  cartilages  and 
the  plantar  cushion.  The  lateral  cartilages  are  two  plates  of  gristle, 
one  on  either  side  of  the  foot,  extending  from  the  wings  of  the  coffin 
bone  backward  to  the  heels  and  upward  to  a  distance  of  an  inch  or 
more  above  the  edge  of  the  hair,  where  they  may  be  felt  by  the  fingers. 
When  sound,  these  plates  are  elastic  and  yield  readily  to  moderate 
finger  pressure,  but  from  various  causes  they  may  undergo  ossification, 
in  which  condition  they  are  hard  and  unyielding  and  are  called  side- 
bones.     The  plantar  cushion  is  a  wedge-shaped  mass  of  tough,  elastic, 


iThe  writer  is  indebted  to  the  revised  edition  of  Diseases  of  the  Horse,  (U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.)  for  many  of  the  statements  included  in  the  discussion  of  this  subiect, 
particularly  to  the  chapter  on  Shoeing,  by  Dr.  John  W.  Adams,  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


409 


fibro-fatty  tissue  filling  all  the  space  between  the  lateral  cartilages, 
forming  the  fleshy  heels,  and  serving  as  a  buffer  to  disperse  shocks. 
It  extends  forward  underneath  the  navicular  bone  and  flexor  tendon, 
and  protects  these  structures  from  injurious  pressure  from  below. 

The  pododerm  or  hoof-producing  membrane  is  merely  a  continua- 
tion of  the  derm,  or  true  skin.  It  covers  the  foot  inside  the  hoof,  just 
as  a  sock  covers  the  human  foot  inside  the  shoe.  It  differs  from  the 
ordinary  external  or  "hair"  skin  in  having  no  sweat  or  oil  glands,  but, 
like  it,  is  richly  supplied  with  blood  vessels  and  sensitive  nerves.  The 
functions  of  the  pododerm  are  to  produce  the  hoof  and  unite  it  firmly 
to  the  foot. 

The  hoof  and  how  it  grows. — The  horny  shell,  called  the  hoof, 
which  covers  and  protects  the  foot,  is  made  up  of  three  parts,  (1)  the 
wall  and  bars,  (2)  the  sole,  and  (3)  the  frog.     Each  part  of  the  hoof 


Fig.  153. — Diagram  showing  structure  of  foot.  1,  Coffin  bone;  2,  small  pas- 
tern bone;  3,  large  pastern  bone;  4,  navicular  bone;  5,  lateral  cartilage;  6,  extensor 
tendon;  7,  flexor  tendon  of  foot;  8,  flexor  tendon  of  pastern;  9,  branches  of  suspensory 
ligament;  10,  wall;  11,  sole;  12,  frog;  13,  indicates  location  of  plantar  cushion  between 
the  lateral  cartilages;  14,  perioplic  ring;  15,  coronary  cushion. 

is  grown  by  some  particular  part  or  parts  of  the  pododerm.  In  general 
it  may  be  said  that  the  horn  of  the  hoof  is  made  up  of  tubules  or  shafts 
of  horn  which  grow  from  papillae  the  same  as  does  hair.  These 
tubules  are  cemented  together  by  non-tubular  matter  corresponding 
to  dandruff  exfoliated  by  the  skin.  In  fact,  so  pronounced  is  the 
similarity  in  growth  of  horn  and  hair  that  coarse  hair,  especially  on 
the  legs  and  coronet,  is  associated  with  horn  of  coarse  texture.  There- 
fore the  more  coarse  and  brittle  the  hair  about  the  coronet,  the  more 
porous,  brittle,  and  weak  will  be  the  formation  of  the  horny  hoof.  ^ 

The  wall  horn  consists  of  three  layers  known  as  (1)  the  outer  or 
perioplic  layer,  (2)  the  middle  or  coronary  layer,  and  (3)  the  inner  or 


ij.  H.  S.  Johnstone:     The  Horse  Book,  p.  24. 


410  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

laminous  layer.  The  perioplic  layer  is  very  thin.  It  is  varnish-like 
in  appearance  and  forms  the  surface  or  crust  of  the  wall.  Its  function 
is  to  preserve  the  moisture  of  the  foot  and  to  absorb  moisture.  A 
horse  working  in  sand  or  dust  usually  has  this  outer  layer  worn  away. 
The  coronary  layer  forms  the  real  basis  of  the  wall.  At  the  heels  it 
is  deflected  forward  to  form  the  bars  of  the  hoof.  The  angle  between 
the  wall  and  bar  is  thickened  and  is  called  the  buttress.  The  function 
of  the  bars  is  to  react  against  contraction  of  the  heels.  The  inner  or 
laminous  layer  of  the  wall  horn  is  not  tubular.  It  is  termed  "laminous" 
because  it  has  the  appearance  of  the  leaves  of  a  book.  There  are  500 
to  600  of  these  laminae  which  extend  from  the  top  of  the  hoof  to  the 
sole.  It  is  less  thick  than  the  coronary  layer,  but,  like  it,  is  deflected 
forward  at  the  heels  to  help  form  the  bars. 


Fig.  154.— The  parts  of  the  hoof.  1,  Wall;  2,  sole;  3,  branch  of  the  sole;  4, 
bar;  5,  buttress;  6,  frog;  7,  cleft  of  the  frog;  8,  bulbs  of  the  heels. 

Growth  of  the  wall. — At  the  lower  end  of  the  pastern,  running 
along  the  edge  of  the  hair  from  one  heel  around  the  toe  to  the  other 
heel,  is  a  narrow  ridge  of  pododerm,  i^  to  >^  of  an  inch  wide, 
called  the  perioplic  ring.  (See  Fig.  153.)  It  consists  of  papillae, 
which  are  microscopic  nobs  or  nodules,  and  from  each  papilla  a  shaft 
of  horn  grows  downward,  forming  the  periople  of  the  wall.  Like  the 
periople,  the  coronary  layer  grows  downward  from  a  band  of  pododerm 
at  the  top  of  the  hoof.  This  band  is  called  the  coronary  cushion,  and 
it  lies  just  below  and  parallel  to  the  perioplic  ring.  (See  Fig.  153.) 
At  the  heels  it  is  deflected  forward  where  it  produces  the  horn  of  the 
bars.  The  laminous  horn  is  produced  by  that  part  of  the  pododerm 
known  as  the  fleshy  laminae;  these  laminae  extend  up  and  down  be- 
tween the  coronary  cushion  and  the  sole.  The  fleshy  laminae  of  the 
pododerm  and  the  laminous  layer  of  the  wall  horn  dovetail  together, 
thus  holding  the  hoof  securely  to  the  foot. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  411 

The  sole  horn  is  circular  in  shape  except  that  it  is  notched  at  the 
rear  where  it  receives  the  bars  and  horny  frog.  It  is  naturally  concave 
below  and  is  bounded  at  its  edge  by  the  wall  and  bars.  It  is  very 
brittle,  non-elastic,  and  easily  penetrated.  The  sole  horn  is  produced 
by  the  fleshy  sole,  which  is  that  portion  of  the  pododerm  covering  the 
entire  under  surface  of  the  foot  excepting  the  fleshy  frog  and  bars. 

The  horny  frog  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  sole  horn  except 
at  its  apex.  It  is  tough,  elastic,  and  rather  soft  horn.  The  upper 
part  of  the  horny  frog  has  an  elevation  or  ridge  and  on  the  bottom 
there  is  a  corresponding  notch  or  groove.  The  horny  frog  grows  from 
the  fleshy  frog,  which  is  that  part  of  the  pododerm  just  above  the  horny 
frog. 

The  preceding  discussion  of  the  parts  of  the  hoof  and  pododerm 
may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

IPerioplic  layer,  produced  by  perioplic  ring. 
Coronary  layer,  produced  by  coronary  cushion. 
Laminous  layer,  produced  by  fleshy  laminae. 

2.  Sole,  produced  by  fleshy  sole. 

3.  Frog,  produced  by  fleshy  frog. 

All  parts  of  the  hoof  grow  downward  and  forward  with  equal 
rapidity,  the  rate  of  growth  being  largely  dependent  upon  the  amount 
of  blood  supplied  to  the  pododerm.  Abundant  and  regular  exercise, 
good  grooming,  moistness  and  suppleness  of  the  hoof,  going  barefoot, 
plenty  of  good  food,  and  at  proper  intervals  removing  the  over-growth 
of  the  hoof  and  regulating  the  bearing  surface — all  these,  by  increasing 
the  volume  and  improving  the  quality  of  blood  flowing  into  the  podo- 
derm, favor  the  rapid  growth  of  horn  of  good  quality.  Lack  of  exer- 
cise, dryness  of  the  horn,  and  excessive  length  of  the  hoof  hinder  growth. 
The  average  rate  of  growth  of  the  hoof  is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  a 
month.  Irregular  growth  often  occurs.  This  is  almost  always  due  to 
an  improper  distribution  of  the  body  weight  over  the  hoof, — that  is, 
an  unbalanced  foot.  An  authority  on  this  subject  says:  ^  "If  breeders 
were  more  generally  cognizant  of  the  power  of  overgrown  and  unbal- 
anced hoofs  to  divert  the  lower  bones  of  young  legs  from  their  proper 
direction,  we  might  hope  to  see  fewer  knock-kneed,  splay-footed, 
pigeon-toed,  cow-hocked,  interfering,  and  paddling  horses." 

Characteristics  of  a  healthy  foot.— ^A  healthy  foot  is  equally  warm 
at  all  parts,  and  is  not  tender  under  pressure  with  the  hands.  The 
coronet  ^  is  soft  and  elastic  at  all  points  and  does  not  project  beyond 
the  surface  of  the  wall.     The  wall  is  straight  from  coronet  to  ground. 


^Dr.  John  W.  Adams,  University  of  Pennsylvania:  Shoeing,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Ag^r.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Special  Rpt.,  Diseases  of  the  Horse,  Revised,  p.  558. 

2  The  coronet  or  "hoof  head"  is  the  lower  end  of  the  pastern  immediately  above 
the  hoof. 


412  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Liv6  Stock 

so  that  a  straight-edge  laid  against  the  wall  from  coronet  to  ground 
parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  horn  tubules  will  touch  at  every  point. 
The  wall  should  be  covered  with  the  outer  varnish-like  layer  of  horn 
and  should  show  no  cracks  or  clefts.  Every  hoof  shows  "ring  forma- 
tion," but  the  rings  should  not  be  strongly  marked  and  should  always 
run  parallel  to  the  coronet.  Strongly  marked  rings  are  evidence  of  a 
weak  hoof,  and  when  limited  to  a  part  of  the  wall  are  evidence  of 
previous  local  inflammation.  The  bulbs  of  the  heels  should  be  full, 
rounded,  and  of  equal  height.  The  sole  should  be  well  hollowed  out, 
the  frog  well  developed,  the  cleft  of  the  frog  broad  and  shallow,  the 
spaces  between  the  bars  and  the  frog  wide  and  shallow,  the  bars  straight 
from  buttress  toward  the  point  of  the  frog,  and  the  buttresses  them- 
selves so  far  apart  as  not  to  press  against  the  frog.  The  lateral  -car- 
tilages should  yield  readily  to  finger  pressure.  Some  horsemen  object 
to  a  white  hoof,  believing  it  to  be  less  durable,  but  a  white  hoof  is  as 
good  as  a  dark-colored  one.  Horn  of  good  quality  is  fine  grained  and 
tough,  while  poor  horn  is  coarse  grained  and  either  too  mellow  and 
friable  or  hard  and  brittle. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 


SOME  IMPORTANT  FACTS  CONCERNING  THE  HORSE 

Base  of  support. — The  horse's  legs  are  his  base  of  support,  just  as 
the  table  legs  support  the  table.  The  longer  the  legs,  the  less  stable 
the  base  of  support.  The  smaller  the  base  of  support,  the  less  stable 
it  will  be.  The  less  stable  the  base  of  support,  the  greater  the  speed 
of  the  horse;  while  the  greater  the  stability,  the  greater  the  power  for 
draft.  Any  object  will  be  most  stable  when  the  center  of  its  weight 
is  directly  over  the  center  of  its  base  of  support.     In  horses  the  center 


i/ertebrdl  sp'me 


long  postern 
short  poitern 


Fig.  155. — Attachment  of  fore  leg  to  body.     Cross-section  through  chest  show- 
ing the  bones  of  the  fore  leg  and  the  muscular  attachment  of  leg  to  body. 

of  weight  is  far  forward,  lying  immediately  behind  the  shoulders. 
Thus  the  fore  legs  support  much  more  of  the  weight  of  the  horse  than 
do  the  hind  legs,  in  fact  it  is  the  function  of  the  forequarters  to  support, 
and  of  the  hindquarters  to  propel.  This  is  the  more  clearly  shown 
when  we  examine  the  anatomy  of  the  horse,  for  we  find  that  the  hind 
legs  are  attached  to  the  trunk  by  the  strong  ball-and-socket  joint, 
while  the  fore  legs  are  not  directly  attached  to  the  trunk  but  are  con- 
nected by  intervening  muscles  which  form  a  sort  of  sling  which  sus- 
pends the  body  between  the  two  fore  legs.  The  muscle  attaching  the 
fore  limb  to  the  trunk  is  the  serratus  magnus,  an  enormous  triangular 
muscle  which  originates  on  the  upper  part  of  the  internal  surface  of 

413 


414  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

the  shoulder  blade,  spreads  out  like  a  fan  on  the  sides  of  the  chest  and 
neck,  and  ends  on  the  cervical  vertebrae  and  first  8  or  9  ribs.  Fig. 
155  shows  a  front  view  of  the  muscular  attachment  of  the  scapula  to 
the  neck  and  trunk. 

When  the  horse  is  standing,  the  base  of  support  is  represented  by  a 
rectangle  the  corners  of  which  are  the  horse's  feet.  In  the  walk,  the 
base  of  support  is  triangular,  for  then  only  three  feet  touch  the  ground. 
In  the  trot  or  pace,  only  two  feet  touch  the  ground,  and  the  base  of 
support  will  be  represented  by  a  line.  In  the  run  or  gallop,  the  base 
of  support  is  a  point.  Thus  as  speed  increases  there  is  a  corresponding 
decrease  in  stability. 

The  horse  in  motion. — We  have  seen  that  the  horse  is  rather  un- 
stable because  the  center  of  weight  lies  almost  over  the  fore  legs. 
Hence  the  fore  legs  answer  the  purpose  simply  of  a  support  to  the 
horse's  weight  when  he  is  in  motion.  If  we  could  replace  the  fore  legs 
with  a  wheel,  we  would  have  an  equally  efl^cient  motor. 

When  a  man  walks,  he  leans  forward  in  order  to  throw  the  center 
of  his  weight  ahead  of  his  base  of  support.  This  causes  him  to  begin 
to  fall  forward,  and  indeed  he  would  fall  if  he  did  not  advance  his  foot 
and  so  bring  his  base  of  support  once  more  under,  or  nearly  under,  the 
center  of  weight.  Walking  is  simply  a  succession  of  interrupted  falls. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  horse.  In  walking  he  pushes  backward  against 
the  ground  with  his  hind  feet  and  causes  his  center  of  weight  to  tip 
forward.  The  result  is  that  he  begins  to  fall,  and  if  he  did  not  advance 
a  fore  foot  he  would  land  on  his  head.  By  stepping  forward  he  again 
assumes  his  equilibrium  and  immediately  tips  his  weight  forward  again 
by  propelling  with  his  hind  legs.  Walking  is  simply  the  repetition  of 
this  performance  over  and  over  again. 

In  the  trot  and  the  gallop  or  run,  there  is  the  same  backward  thrust 
with  the  hind  feet  and  the  same  recovery  with  the  fore  feet,  but  the 
thrust  is  much  greater,  the  stride  is  longer,  and  the  shock  and  effort 
in  the  recovery  are  increased  in  proportion. 

In  1897,  Tod  Sloan,  a  famous  American  jockey,  went  to  England 
to  ride.  He  practiced  the  same  seat  which  all  American  jockeys  use 
and  with  which  all  Americans  are  familiar.  Its  peculiar  feature  is  that 
the  jockey  sits  as  far  forward  on  the  horse  as  possible.  When  Sloan 
appeared  on  English  race  courses  he  was  severely  ridiculed,  for  at  that 
time  English  jockeys  were  not  familiar  with  our  methods  and  it  was 
thought  Sloan  was  trying  to  attract  attention  to  himself  by  adopting 
a  ridiculous  position  on  his  horse.  Race-going  people  laughed  at  him 
until  it  was  noticed  that  he  was  enjoying  unusual  success  at  winning 
races.  Sloan  rode  20  winners  during  his  first  season  in  England,  43 
the  next,  and  in  1899  he  was  first  past  the  post  with  no  fewer  than  108 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  415 

horses.  In  the  same  year,  two  other  Americans,  the  brothers  Lester 
and  Johnny  Reiff,  also  had  82  victories  to  their  credit.  The  methods 
of  these  American  jockeys  were  soon  copied  by  most  of  the  EngHsh 
riders,  but  the  Americans  continued  to  pile  up  a  remarkable  record  of 
successes,  culminating  in  three  successive  Derby  triumphs — Lester 
Reiff's  in  1901,  Martin's  in  1902,  and  Maher's  in  1903.  During  eight 
years  ending  in  1905,  the  eight  or  nine  American  jockeys  who  appeared 
in  England  for  one  or  more  seasons  divided  among  them,  in  retainers, 
winning  fees,  and  etceteras,  fully  a  million  dollars.  Their  work  made 
a  new  chapter  in  English  turf  history. 

No  sooner  had  Sloan  shown  ability  to  win  consistently  than  people 
began  trying  to  find  out  the  secret  of  his  success.  They  could  see  that 
he  carried  himself  as  far  forward  on  his  horse  as  possible,  and  so  these 
questions  arose:     Does  a  man  seated  near  the  neck  of  a  horse  enable 


Fig.  156. — The  horse  in  motion.  A,  Center  of  weight;  AB,  line  of  thrust; 
ABC,  angle  of  thrust;  Y,  center  of  weight  when  rider  is  over  neck  of  horse;  X,  center 
of  weight  when  rider  sits  near  the  tail. 

the  animal  to  travel  faster  than  one  seated  near  the  tail?  If  so,  why? 
As  for  the  first  question,  Sloan  gave  it  a  practical  answer  by  his  con- 
sistent winnings.     The  second  question  was  also  finally  answered. 

A  horse  to  move  forward  at  all  must  thrust  at  the  earth,  and  the 
chief  force  of  this  thrust  comes  from  his  hind  legs.  If  the  center  of 
weight  of  horse  and  rider  is  just  over,  or  close  to,  the  thrusting  power, 
naturally  it  diminishes  the  efficiency  for  speed,  for  instead  of  thrusting 
the  horse  forward,  a  large  portion  of  the  muscular  energy  is  wasted  in 
lifting  the  weight  of  the  jockey  at  every  stride.  The  accompanjdng 
drawing  and  the  words  which  follow  will  make  this  clear. 

The  farther  forward  the  center  of  weight  is,  the  longer  is  the  line 
from  hind  foot  to  center  of  weight,  called  the  line  of  thrust,  and  the 


416  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

more  nearly  will  this  line  approach  the  horizontal.  As  a  horse  has  to 
raise  himself  vertically  with  each  bound,  it  is  naturally  a  matter  of 
very  great  importance  whether  he  has  to  lift  a  dead  weight  or  a  weight 
which  throws  forward.  A  jockey  on  the  horse's  neck  adds  to  the  for- 
ward weight,  and  this  moves  the  center  of  weight  still  farther  forward 
and  places  still  more  weight  on  the  fore  legs  and  equally  less  on  the  hind 
legs.  The  longer  the  angle  of  thrust,  the  easier  and  therefore  the  faster 
the  horse  will  go,  for  his  power  will  then  be  utilized  almost  exclusively 
in  a  horizontal  thrust  resulting  in  speed,  and  little  of  his  energy  will  be 
consumed  in  simply  raising  weight  to  let  it  fall  again.  It  is  the  same 
as  a  man  pushing  a  wheelbarrow;  if  the  load  is  near  the  handles  it  must 
be  raised  at  each  step,  while  if  the  load  is  over  or  near  the  wheel  the 
man  does  not  expend  so  much  energy  in  a  lift  at  each  step,  but  can  use 
all  his  force  at  pushing  straight  ahead. 

Where  the  wear  comes. — From  what  has  been  said  concerning 
the  function  of  the  fore  legs  in  supporting  most  of  the  horse's  weight, 
we  can  readily  understand  that  the  horse  is  more  apt  to  tire,  exhaust, 
and  ruin  his  fore  legs  than  his  hind  ones.  It  is  common  to  see  men 
driving  their  horses  at  speed  when  going  down  hill,  thinking  that  the 
horse  is  doing  little  or  nothing  because  the  vehicle  follows  without 
having  to  be  pulled.  This  is  a  decided  error,  for  in  going  down  hill 
still  more  weight  is  thrown  on  the  fore  legs,  and  if  the  animal  is  made 
to  descend  at  speed  he  hammers  his  fore  legs  severely,  and  often 
stumbles  and  falls.  Because  of  the  hammering  to  which  the  fore  legs 
and  feet  of  the  horse  are  subjected,  and  because  of  the  great  strain 
coming  upon  the  hock  joint  due  to  its  prominent  part  in  propulsion, 
the  feet  and  legs  constitute  a  most  vital  part  in  every  type  of  horse, 
and  special  attention  should  be  given  to  front  feet,  front  pasterns,  the 
hocks,  and  the  set  or  position  of  the  hind  legs  when  judging. 

Phases  of  the  stride. — Dr.  Carl  W.  Gay,  of  Ohio  State  University, 
describes  five  distinct  phases  of  the  horse's  stride,  as  follows:^  1.  A 
preliminary,  during  which  the  leg  is  undergoing  flexion  before  the  foot 
has  left  the  ground.  2.  The  breaking  over,  in  which  the  foot  is  raised 
heel  first  and  is  rocked  up  and  over  at  the  toe.  3.  Flight,  during 
which  the  foot  describes  the  more  or  less  regular  arc  of  a  circle.  4. 
Contact,  as  the  foot  again  meets  the  ground.  5.  Recovery,  as  the 
weight  falls  on  the  foot  preparatory  to  another  stride. 

Hoof  mechanism. — When  the  foot  makes  contact  with  the  ground, 
expansion  occurs,  especially  at  the  heels.  When  the  foot  is  raised 
there  is  contraction.  The  plantar  cushion,  being  soft,  transmits  force 
or  motion  in  all  directions  more  or  less  equally  (as  a  liquid).  It  can- 
not move  downward  to  any  great  degree,  hence  it  spreads  or  diffuses 


•Productive  Horse  Husbandry,  p.  5. 


Types  A^fD  Market  Classes  of  Li\'e  Stock  417 

laterally,  and  so  the  heels  expand.  When  the  horse  places  his  foot  on 
the  ground  there  occurs:  (1)  Contraction  of  the  hoof  at  the  toe- wall 
coronet;  (2)  sinking  of  the  sole,  especially  at  its  branches;  (3)  expan- 
sion of  the  heels;  (4)  sinking  of  the  bulbs  of  the  heels.  These  four 
movements  constitute  what  is  known  as  the  "hoof  mechanism."  The 
health  of  the  foot  is  dependent  on  the  normal  and  free  hoof  mechanism, 
and  it  should  not  be  hindered  by  improper  shoeing  or  other  causes. 
Hoof  mechanism  breaks  concussion  and  assists  circulation.  Concus- 
sion is  shock  and  counter-shock.  These  shocks  must  be  diffused,  and 
this  is  cared  for  laterally  in  the  foot  by  its  changes  in  form. 

Photographs  of  race  horses  in  action  show  that  at  speed  the  horse 
sets  the  heels  to  the  ground  before  the  other  parts  of  the  foot.  This 
utilizes  the  elastic  structures  of  the  heels  to  the  utmost,  produces  a 
maximum  of  hoof  mechanism,  and  absorbs  the  violent  shock  to  the 
greatest  degree  possible. 

Absorption  of  concussion. — Every  step  at  the  walk  or  trot  results 
in  concussion  between  the  ground  and  the  front  foot  of  the  horse. 
Were  it  not  for  certain  arrangements  for  the  absorption  of  this  shock 
or  jar,  the  horse  would  soon  be  made  worthless.  Hoof  mechanism  is, 
as  we  have  seen,  one  of  the  means  of  scattering  the  shock,  acting  in 
much  the  same  way  as  a  pneumatic  tire  on  a  vehicle.  Another  safe- 
guard is  found  in  a  sloping  pastern,  which  acts  in  much  the  same 
manner  as  the  spring  under  a  carriage.  Then  there  is  the  angle  be- 
tween humerus  and  forearm,  and  also  between  scapula  and  humerus, 
which  also  act  as  springs.     A  sloping  shoulder  is  useful  in  the  same  way. 

If  you  have  ever  ridden  in  a  farm  wagon  over  a  rough  road,  stand- 
ing on  your  heels,  you  can  appreciate  the  tremendous  wear  which  comes 
on  the  legs  of  a  horse  with  poor  feet,  straight  pasterns,  and  straight 
shoulders.  Then  if  you  shifted  your  weight  to  your  toes  and  bent 
your  knees  slightly,  you  found  that  your  teeth  stopped  chattering  and 
your  hat  remained  on  your  head.  In  other  words,  your  change  in  posi- 
tion changed  the  column  of  bones  supporting  your  weight  from  a 
straight,  vertical  column  to  a  broken  one  with  angles  which  acted  as 
springs  and  absorbed  the  jar.  It  is  just  so  with  a  horse  having  good 
feet  and  nicely  sloping  shoulders  and  pasterns. 

Defective  conformations  of  the  legs  and  efifects  on  action. — A  line 
around  the  hoof  on  the  ground  gives  the  area  of  the  base  of  support 
of  that  leg.  If  the  center  of  the  base  of  support  of  the  leg  is  not  directly 
under  the  center  of  the  weight  falling  on  that  leg,  the  side  of  the  foot 
nearest  the  point  directly  under  the  center  of  weight  will  be  compelled 
to  do  more  than  its  share  of  the  work.  Therefore  the  leg  of  the  horse 
should  be  so  set  that  the  center  of  the  base  of  support  comes  directly 
under  the  center  of  the  weight  it  bears.     The  fore  legs  should  be  so 


418 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


placed  under  the  body  that,  when  viewed  from  in  front,  a  perpendicular 
line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  will  divide  the  leg  and  foot 
into  lateral  halves.  When  viewed  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line 
dropped  from  the  middle  of  the  forearm  where  it  joins  the  body  should 
divide  the  leg  from  body  to  fetlock  into  lateral  halves  and  strike  the 
ground  just  back  of  the  heel. 


Fig.  157. — Front  view  of  fore  legs.  A  vertical  line  downward  from  the  point 
of  the  shoulder  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee,  cannon,  pastern,  and  foot. 
A,  Ideal  position;  B,  toes  out;  C,  bow  legged;  D,  narrow  chested  and  toes  out;  E, 
stands  close;  F,  knock  kneed;  G,  pigeon  toed. 

When  the  horse  assumes  his  natural  position,  the  hind  legs  should 
be  so  placed  that,  when  viewed  from  the  rear,  a  perpendicular  line 
dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  will  divide  the  leg  and  foot  into 
lateral  halves;  and  when  viewed  from  the  side,  this  line  should  touch 
the  rear  edge  of  the  cannon  from  hock  point  to  fetlock  and  meet  the 
ground  some  little  distance  back  of  the  heel. 


Fig.  158.— Side  view  of  fore  legs.  A  vertical  line  downward  from  the  center 
of  the  elbow  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee  and  fetlock  joints  and  meet 
the  ground  back  of  the  heel.  A,  Ideal  position;  B,  camped  under;  C,  camped  out; 
D,  knee  sprung;  E,  calf  kneed. 

The  direction  and  slope  of  the  axis  of  pastern  and  foot  are  very 
important.  When  the  leg  is  viewed  from  the  front  or  side,  the  axis  of 
the  pastern  and  the  axis  of  the  foot  should  be  identical.  As  viewed 
from  the  front,  the  toe  should  point  directly  forward.  This  insures  an 
even  distribution  of  weight  to  both  sides  of  the  foot  and  also  trueness 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


419 


of  action.  As  viewed  from  the  side,  the  axis  of  the  front  pastern  and 
foot  should  meet  the  ground  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees.  This 
angle  affords  the  best  combination  of  strength  and  springiness. 

When  moving  toward  or  from  you,  the  feet  of  the  horse  should 
appear  to  have  only  one  motion,  which  should  be  vertically  up  and 
down.     This  is  very  essential  in  every  type  of  horse.     Height  of  action 


Fig.  159. — Side  view  of  hind  legs.  A  vertical  line  downward  from  the  point 
of  the  buttock  should  touch  the  rear  edge  of  the  cannon  from  hock  to  fetlock  and  meet 
the  ground  some  little  distance  behind  the  heel.  A,  Ideal  position;  B,  stands  under; 
C,  camped  out;  D,  hind  leg  too  straight. 

in  any  type  should  be  great  enough  to  clear  the  ground  by  a  reasonable 
distance,  so  as  to  prevent  stumbling  and  insure  length  of  stride.  The 
carriage  horse  is  required  to  go  higher  than  this  for  reasons  which  will 
be  explained  in  connection  with  the  description  of  that  type.  The 
essentials  of  good  action  are  (1)  straight-line  action,  (2)  long  stride, 
and  (3)  foot  should  be  picked  up  with  snap.     Defects  in  conformation 


Fig.  160. — Rear  view  of  hind  legs.  A  vertical  line  downward  from  the  point 
of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern,  and  foot. 
A,  Ideal  position;  B,  stands  wide;  C,  bow  legged;  D,  stands  close;  E,  cow  hocked. 


and  placing  of  feet  and  legs  result  in  defects  in  action.  Only  when  the 
legs  are  correctly  proportioned  and  properly  placed  can  good  action 
result.  Correctness  of  action  depends  also  upon  temperament,  strength 
of  muscling,  height  over  withers  as  compared  with  height  over  hips, 
and  general  symmetry  and  proportionment  of  parts.     The  most  com- 


420 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


mon  defects  in  the  shape  and  position  of  the  legs  are  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying drawings. 

A  horse  that  is  "base  wide"  or  "toe  wide"  in  front,  swings  the  leg 
inward  when  in  action.  A  "base  narrow"  or  "toe  narrow"  conforma- 
tion results  in  the  horse  swinging  his  feet  outward,  or  "paddling"  as 
it  is  called.  (See  accompanying  drawings.)  Horses  that  naturally 
stand  wide  at  the  hocks  will  travel  the  same  way  (wide),  which  is  very 
undesirable.  When  the  hind  legs  are  bowed  outward,  the  hocks  spread 
still  farther  outward  when  the  stress  comes  upon  them  in  action,  and 
usually  the  foot  leaves  the  ground  with  a  twisting  motion  which  wears 
out  shoes  and  is  otherwise  undesirable.  Any  deviation  from  trueness 
in  the  flight  of  the  foot  wastes  energy,  detracts  from  the  appearance 
of  the  horse  in  action,  and  the  horse  may  strike  himself,  called  inter- 
fering, which  often  causes  blemishes,  lameness,  and  stumbling. 


i-l 


Fig.  161. — Defects  in  fore  legs  and  their  effects  on  action. 

Viewed  from  the  side,  a  nicely  sloping  foot  and  pastern  leave  the 
ground  easily  and  describe  the  arc  of  a  circle  at  every  step.  Straight 
or  stubby  pasterns  and  feet  result  in  a  short,  stubby  way  of  going  that 
is  stilted  and  non-elastic.  A  too-sloping  pastern  and  foot  are  not 
nicely  carried,  but  are  brought  out  straight  to  a  point  in  front  and  then 
slapped  upon  the  ground.  (See  accompanying  drawings.)  Other 
defects  of  action  will  be  discussed  in  connection  with  the  various  types 
of  horses. 

Bent  or  sickle  hocks. — This  defect  is  often  difficult  for  beginners 
to  detect.  It  is  often  possible  to  pose  a  horse  so  as  to  hide  this  fault 
unless  one  knows  exactly  how  to  detect  it  under  all  conditions.  When 
a  horse  with  a  sickle  hock  stands  in  a  natural  position,  the  defect  is 
easily  seen.  A  vertical  line  downward  from  the  point  of  the  buttock 
may  then  touch  the  point  of  the  hock,  but  below  that  point  the  cannon 
slopes  forward  instead  of  following  the  vertical  line,  and  the  hind  foot 
is  placed  too  far  forward.     (See  B  in  Fig.  162,  and  note  that  this  is 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


421 


not  the  same  defect  as  B  in  Fig.  159.)  Some  horses  are  very  slightly 
sickled  and  some  are  very  crooked  indeed.  Such  a  conformation  is 
decidedly  objectionable  because  bent  hocks  are  not  as  stout  as  straight 
hocks  at  a  hard  pull  or  at  work  of  any  kind,  and  furthermore  the  crooked 
shape  of  the  hock  and  leg  brings  an  added  strain  on  the  hock  joint. 
The  sickle  hock  often  develops  a  curb,  and  is  also  subject  to  other 
unsoundnesses. 

In  showing  horses,  it  is  common  to  stretch  them  out  on  their  legs 
to  a  slight  extent,  so  as  to  raise  the  head  and  neck,  level  up  the  croup, 
and  increase  the  slope  of  the  front  pasterns.  A  horse  in  such  a  posi- 
tion is  more  apt  to  hold  it  than  a  horse  standing  naturally,  and  for  all 
these  reasons  it  is  practiced  by  horsemen.  It  also  has  the  advantage 
of  covering  up  defects  in  the  set  of  the  legs,  particularly  a  sickle  hock. 
If  a  horse  with  sickle  hocks  is  stretched  or  "camped  out"  a  bit,  his 


Fig.  162. — Sickle  hock.  A,  Hind  leg  of  a  horse  of  correct  conformation;  B  and 
C,  two  positions  of  the  hind  leg  of  a  horse  with  a  sickle  hock;  B,  in  a  position  easily 
exposing  the  defect;  C,  in  a  position  in  which  the  defect  is  not  so  apparent. 

hind  cannons  become  vertical,  and  the  novice  is  likely  to  overlook  the 
fact  that  the  line  of  his  cannons,  even  though  it  is  vertical,  points  back 
of  his  buttock,  often  to  a  considerable  degree.  (See  C  in  accompany- 
ing drawings,  and  note  that  this  is  not  the  same  as  C  in  Fig.  159.)  It 
is  only  by  noting  carefully  the  direction  of  the  lines  indicated  in  the 
accompanying  drawings  that  one  can  detect  this  fault. 

Determination  of  age  from  the  teeth. — The  age  of  the  horse  is 
easily  determined  up  to  and  including  the  fifth  year  by  an  examination 
of  the  incisor  teeth,  of  which  there  are  three  pairs  in  the  upper  jaw 
and  three  pairs  in  the  lower.  All  of  these  incisors  are  temporary  or 
milk  teeth  up  to  two  years  of  age.  At  birth  none  of  the  temporary 
teeth  have  cut  the  gums,  but  at  one  year  they  have  all  appeared  and 
the  middle  and  intermediate  pairs  are  in  wear,  but  the  corner  pairs 


422  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

are  not  fully  in  wear.  At  two  years,  all  of  the  temporary  teeth  are  in 
wear,  kt  2}^  to  3  years,  the  middle  pair  above  and  below  are  shed, 
and  are  replaced  by  permanent  incisors.  These  are  broader,  heavier 
teeth,  and  have  a  rather  rough  or  corrugated  surface,  whereas  the  sur- 
face of  the  milk  teeth  is  smooth.  At  53^  /o  ^  years,  the  intermediate 
pair  of  permanent  incisors  appears  in  each  jaw.  At  -4H  ^o  5  years,  the 
comer  pair  of  milk  teeth  above  and  below  are  displaced  by  permanents, 
and  the  horse  may  be  said  to  have  reached  maturity. 

After  five  years  the  age  is  not  so  easily  determined,  nor  are  the 
indications  so  accurate.  We  rely  mostly  upon  changes  in  appearance 
shown  by  the  wearing  surfaces  of  the  teeth  to  tell  us  the  age  beyond 
five  years.  The  wearing  surface  of  new  permanent  teeth  has  a  long, 
narrow  cup  or  depression  running  across  it  transversely.  The  rims 
of  these  cups  disappear  through  wear,  leaving  two  distinct  rings  of 
enamel,  one  around  the  margin  of  the  tooth,  and  the  other  around  the 
cup.  With  wear,  the  cup  becomes  smaller,  more  oval  or  rounding  in 
shape,  and  more  shallow,  until  it  is  finally  worn  almost  completely 
away.  Continued  wear  exposes  the  tip  of  the  pulp  canal  or  cavity  in 
the  center  of  the  tooth,  and  the  exposed  tip  of  this  canal  appears  be- 
tween what  is  left  of  the  cup  and  the  front  of  the  tooth.  The  exposed 
pulp  cavity  is  called  the  "dental  star." 

At  six  years,  the  middle  pair  in  the  lower  jaw  are  usually  worn 
level  and  the  wearing  surface  tends  to  become  oval  in  form.  The 
central  ring  of  enamel  is  plainly  evident,  but  is  smaller  than  at  five 
years,  indicating  considerable  wear.  The  lower  corner  teeth,  which 
at  five  years  showed  little  or  no  wear,  now  usually  show  wear,  the  edge 
surrounding  the  cup  being  much  less  sharp  and  shell-like.  The  canine 
teeth,  which  first  appeared  at  four  years  are  now  completely  out.  At 
seven  years,  the  lower  intermediates  are  also  levelled  on  the  wearing 
surface  and  the  ring  of  central  enamel  becomes  wider  from  before  back- 
ward, and  shorter  from  side  to  side.  A  hook  or  "swallow  tail"  is  often 
present  on  the  upper  corner  teeth  because  they  are  broader  than  the 
lower  corners  and  do  not  wear  down  evenly.  At  eight  years,  all  the 
lower  teeth  are  levelled  and  the  dental  star  appears  upon  the  center 
and  intermediate  pairs,  showing  between  the  front  border  of  the  tooth 
and  the  front  border  of  the  central  enamel. 

At  nine  years,  the  hook  or  swallow  tail  on  the  upper  corners  has 
often  disappeared.  The  lower  centers  are  round;  their  central  enamel 
has  a  triangular  form;  and  their  dental  star  is  narrower  and  more  dis- 
tinct. The  center  pair  of  the  upper  jaw  are  usually  levelled.  At  ten 
years,  the  changes  previously  mentioned  become  more  marked,  and 
the  upper  intermediates  are  usually  levelled.  At  eleven  years,  the 
central  enamel  of  the  upper  corner  teeth  becomes  elliptical  and  tends 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  423 

to  disappear.  The  lower  teeth  now  show  much  wear,  the  central 
enamel  forms  a  small  ring  only,  very  close  to  the  back  border  of  the 
tooth,  while  the  dental  star  becomes  narrower  and  also  approaches  the 
back  border.  At  twelve  years,  all  of  the  lower  teeth  are  round,  and 
sometimes  the  central  enamel  has  disappeared,  in  which  case  the  wear- 
ing surfaces  show  only  a  small  yellowish  spot  which  is  the  dental  star. 
At  fifteen  years,  the  swallow  tail,  which  reappeared  at  ten  years,  is  still 
in  evidence,  the  teeth  tend  strongly  toward  a  triangular  shape  on  the 
wearing  surface,  and  other  indications  of  age  become  marked.  At 
twenty-one  years,  the  swallow  tail  is  gone  again,  and  all  indications  of 
wear  are  very  marked.  After  ten  or  eleven  years  and  on  up  to  thirty 
or  more,  only  general  indications  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  age.  The 
horseman  knows  that  the  teeth  change  from  oval  to  three-sided  with 
age,  and  that  they  project  or  slant  forward  more  and  more  each  year. 
In  very  old  horses  these  features  are  very  marked. 

In  determining  the  age,  a  regular  procedure  should  be  followed. 
First  open  the  lips  and  determine  whether  the  teeth  are  temporary  or 
permanent.  Unless  they  are  all  permanent  it  is  usually  unnecessary 
to  open  the  mouth.  If  they  are  all  permanent,  the  wearing  surfaces 
of  the  lower  incisors  should  be  carefully  examined  first,  and  then  the 
wearing  surfaces  of  the  upper  incisors.  Also  note  the  profile  or  slant 
of  the  teeth,  and  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  hook  or  swallow  tail 
on  the  upper  comer  teeth. 

Mere  description  here  will  not  enable  the  student  to  become  adept 
at  determining  age.  Actual  practice  and  the  study  of  many  mouths 
are  necessary  in  order  to  master  this  subject. 

Determination  of  the  height  of  horses. — The  height  of  a  horse  is 
determined  by  measuring  the  vertical  distance  from  the  highest  part 
of  his  withers  to  the  ground.  The  unit  in  which  the  height  of  horses 
is  expressed  is  the  hand.  A  hand  is  four  inches.  A  horse  measuring 
60  inches  high  is  thus  said  to  be  15  hands  high;  a  horse  measuring  63 
inches  is  said  to  be  "fifteen,  three,"  meaning  15  hands,  3  inches, 
written  15-3;  and  one  measuring  65  inches  is  16-1  hands  high.  The 
dividing  line  in  height  between  horses  and  ponies  cannot  be  definitely 
fixed,  but  is  about  14  hands.  Ponies  vary  in  height  from  14  hands  down 
to  8  hands  or  even  less,  while  horses  vary  from  14  hands  up  to  18  hands 
and  over.  With  practice  the  height  of  horses  may  be  estimated  very 
closely  without  the  aid  of  a  measuring  standard.  A  person  who  knows 
the  exact  height  from  the  ground  to  the  level  of  his  eyes,  and  also  the 
exact  height  from  the  ground  to  his  chin,  can  step  up  to  the  shoulder 
of  a  horse,  locate  the  highest  bony  part  of  the  withers,  and  estimate  the 
height  very  quickly  and  ,with  a  high  degree  of  accuracy. 


CHAPTER  XXX 
ORIGIN  OF  THE  TYPES  OF  HORSES 

Several  wild  species  of  horses  existed  in  Europe  and  Asia  from 
very  remote  times,  but  it  was  in  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt  that  the  horse 
was  first  domesticated  and  made  to  serve  man.  He  was  taken  thence 
to  Greece,  Rome,  and  Arabia;  thence  to  more  remote  parts  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  particularly  to  Spain,  France,  and  England;  and  thence  to 
America  and  Australia. 

For  a  long  time  the  horses  used  by  the  early  European  tribes  and 
nations  were  small,  semi-wild  animals,  and  no  effort  was  made  to  im- 
prove them  by  breeding.  They  were  used  principally  in  warfare, 
harnessed  to  chariots.  However,  there  were  horses  of  black  color  and 
much  greater  size  and  weight  native  to  the  t-egion  in  western  Europe 
now  called  Flanders,  and  these  were  taken  south  and  east,  just  as  the 
horses  of  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt  were  taken  north  and  west.  The 
infusion  of  the  blood  of  this  large  Flemish  horse  increased  the  size  of 
European  horses  and  made  them  suitable  for  riding  and  other  purposes. 

The  development  and  progress  of  the  horse  was  parallel  with  the 
development  of  civilization  and  a  prominent  factor  in  it.  The  horse 
was  first  used  for  military  purposes;  next,  in  ceremonies,  both  religious 
and  civil;  third,  in  the  agricultural  and  commercial  pursuits  of  nations; 
fourth,  in  connection  with  the  pastimes  and  sports  of  nations. 

First  saddle  horse. — The  Arabian  horse  was  the  first  breed  of  live 
stock  developed  by  man.  This  horse  is  a  saddle  type  and  was  de- 
veloped for  use  in  warfare.  The  exact  origin  is  unknown,  but  it  seems 
to  have  descended  directly  from  the  wild  Libyan  horse  native  to  north- 
ern Africa — most  excellent  of  all  known  wild  varieties  of  the  horse. 
The  Arabian  has  for  centuries  possessed  such  exquisite  quality,  refine- 
ment, intelligence,  spirit,  docility,  and  beauty  as  to  make  him  universal- 
ly admired  and  famous.  He  was  taken  to  England  at  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century  and  was  used  in  founding  the  English  Thorough- 
bred and  also  the  Norfolk  Trotter  which  later  became  the  Hackney. 
In  Russia  he  helped  produce  the  Orloff  Trotter,  and  the  Percheron 
breed  of  France  is  also  thought  to  owe  some  of  its  excellence  to  Arab 
blood  in  its  foundation.  Inasmuch  as  the  Yorkshire  Coach  Horse, 
Cleveland  Bay,  American  Trotting  Horse,  American  Saddle  Horse,  and 
the  Morgan  are  all  sprung  largely  from  the  Thoroughbred,  every  breed 
of  light  horses  carries  the  blood  of  the  Arab  in  greater  or  less  degree. 

424 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  425 

Turk,  Barb,  and  Spanish  horses.— The  Turk,  or  Turkish  horse, 
found  in  portions  of  European  Turkey,  but  principally  in  Asia  Minor, 
was  of  considerable  importance  in  the  seventeenth  century,  but  it  has 
deteriorated  very  much  since  then.  The  Barb  is  a  native  of  the 
Barbary  States,  whence  its  name.  It  was  found  in  its  greatest  perfec- 
tion among  the  Moors,  who  introduced  the  Barb  blood  into  Spain 
during  their  rule  in  that  country,  and  so  improved  the  Spanish  horse 
that  for  several  centuries  it  occupied  the  first  place  throughout  Europe. 
Spanish  horses  of  this  stock  brought  to  America  by  the  Spaniards  were 
progenitors  of  the  wild  horses  once  common  to  Mexico  and  California. 

Origin  of  the  running  horse. — One  of  the  first  types  of  horses  de- 
veloped in  England  was  the  running  horse,  the  sport  of  racing  having 
been  fostered  there  from  an  early  date.  Long  before  an  Arabian, 
Barb,  or  Turk  stallion  set  foot  on  English  soil,  a  strain  of  running 
horses  of  considerable  excellence  had  been  developed,  hence  the  Oriental 
stallions  which  were  later  imported  cannot  be  given  more  than  half 
the  credit  for  founding  the  running  horse  or  Thoroughbred.  The 
Thoroughbred  owes  his  origin  jointly  to  the  native  running  mares  of 
England  and  to  the  Arabian,  Barb,  and  Turk  stallions  imported  at  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

The  Great  Horse  or  War  Horse. — The  first  tj^De  of  English  horse 
was  the  "Great  Horse"  or  "War  Horse"  used  during  the  Crusades  and 
up  to  about  the  year  1600  to  carry  the  warriors  clad  in  their  suits  of 
heavy  armor.  A  knight  in  heavy  armor,  together  with  the  armor  for 
his  horse,  weighed  about  400  pounds,  hence  the  necessity  for  a  big, 
strong  horse.  The  native  English  horse  was  small,  and  in  order  to 
increase  the  size  and  strength,  Flemish  stallions  were  imported  from 
Normandy,  and  for  nearly  500  years  English  breeders  centered  their 
attention  on  the  matter  of  size.  With  the  appearance  of  gunpowder 
and  firearms  in  warfare,  armor  was  made  useless  and  the  heavy  war 
horse  gave  way  to  much  lighter  animals  with  more  speed. 

Origin  of  draft  type. — When  displaced  in  warfare,  the  ponderous 
war  horse  did  not  become  extinct,  but  was  put  to  work  at  tilling  the 
soil.  Prior  to  this,  field  labor  had  been  performed  solely  by  oxen,  and 
the  ox  continued  in  use  as  a  draft  animal  even  after  horses  were  in- 
troduced for  farm  work.  The  war  horse  thus  became  an  agricultural 
horse  and  in  time  was  utilized  as  the  foundation  of  the  British  draft 
breeds — the  Shire  and  Clydesdale.  The  Percheron  breed  was  built  up 
from  the  heavy  diligence  (stage-coach)  horses  used  in  France  in  the 
early  days  when  roads  were  deep  in  mud.  The  railroad  later  displaced 
the  diligence  horse  and  he  found  a  place  on  the  farm.  When  a  demand 
arose  from  cities  for  a  horse  suited  to  moving  heavy  freight  through 
the  streets,  these  agricultural  horses  in  England,  Scotland,  France,  and 


426  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Belgium  were  bred  larger,  heavier,  and  better  to  meet  the  new  demand, 
and  thus  originated  the  draft  breeds  as  we  know  them  today — Shire, 
Clydesdale,  Percheron,  and  Belgian.  This  occurred  in  the  first  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  hunter. — Fox  hunting  in  England  dates  back  to  early  times, 
and  there  has  long  existed  a  demand  for  a  type  of  horse  specially 
adapted  to  this  sport.  Strange  to  say,  no  breed  of  hunters  has  ever 
been  developed,  the  demand  being  supplied  by  Thoroughbreds  and 
grade  Thoroughbreds  of  hunter  type. 

The  carriage  horse. — The  modem  type  of  carriage  horse  originated 
less  than  50  years  ago.  Prior  to  this,  there  was  a  succession  of  types 
dating  from  the  time  the  most  primitive  carriages  came  into  use  cen- 
turies ago.  The  primitive  carriage  horse  was  a  semi-wild  pony,  and 
he  was  harnessed  to  a  couple  of  long  poles,  fixed  at  one  end  to  the 
pony's  neck,  the  other  end  dragging  on  the  ground  beneath  the  load. 
Next  in  the  evolution  of  the  modem  carriage  came  the  sledge,  and 
later  came  a  sledge  mounted  on  rollers.  In  time  the  rollers  were  im- 
proved to  the  present  form  of  an  axle  and  wheels.  All  this  was  before 
the  Christian  era.  Centuries  more  elapsed  before  anything  deserving 
the  name  of  carriage  was  built. 

Carriages  were  first  used  by  the  nobility  of  England  about  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  but  the  roads  were  so  bad  and  the 
vehicles  so  heavy  that  they  were  of  little  service  until  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  It  was  not  until  more  recent  times  that  driving 
became  a  real  pleasure,  for  carriage  springs  were  not  invented  until 
about  1665  and  in  their  first  form  appear  to  have  been  cmde  and  ineffi- 
cient. Toward  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  great  and  rapid 
improvement  was  begun  in  highways,  vehicles,  and  horses,  so  that  the 
rate  of  travel  was  increased  from  4  or  5  to  12  miles  per  hour.  Then 
came  the  railway,  displacing  the  road  coach  and  consigning  the  carriage 
horse  to  the  realm  of  pastime  and  pleasure  exclusively. 

The  first  English  carriage  horse  was  the  old  black  cart  horse,  or 
"shire  horse"  as  he  was  called,  heavy,  ungainly,  with  a  big  head  and 
shaggy  fetlocks.  He  was  descended  from  the  old-time  war  horse,  and 
hence  was  of  Flemish  blood.  They  were  so  slow  that  the  footmen 
could  easily  go  ahead  when  necessary  and  engage  lodging  at  the  next 
inn.  As  highways  were  improved  and  carriages  made  lighter,  the  cart 
horse  was  crossed  with  the  Thoroughbred  in  order  to  secure  lighter 
and  faster  animals  for  carriage  use.  Thus  originated  the  Cleveland 
Bay  and  Yorkshire  Coach  Horse,  two  breeds  of  heavy  carriage  horses. 

The  carriage  horse  as  we  know  him  today  is  comparatively  a  new 
type  in  both  Europe  and  America.  He  is  a  medium-sized  animal  with 
outstanding  beauty  and  attractiveness  in  both  form  and  action.     The 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  427 

demand  for  such  a  horse  did  not  arise  until  city  streets  were  improved 
and  carriages  made  elegant  and  comfortable,  so  that  driving  became 
a  pleasure  rather  than  a  painful  necessity.  From  what  was  called  the 
Norfolk  Trotter,  which  was  a  fast-trotting,  plain,  serviceable,  moder- 
ate-sized horse  formerly  used  by  English  farmers  as  a  road  horse  (and 
used  by  them  under  saddle),  there  was  developed  in  England  the 
Hackney,  which  is  today  the  foremost  breed  of  carriage  horses.  The 
Norfolk  Trotter  originated  at  about  the  same  time  as  the  Thorough- 
bred, being  the  result  of  crossing  Arabian  and  other  Oriental  sires  on 
mares  showing  aptitude  for  the  trotting  gait,  just  as  the  Thoroughbred 
resulted  from  the  crossing  of  these  same  sires  on  native  running  mares 
of  proven  ability  on  the  turf. 

The  polo  pony. — The  game  of  polo  was  introduced  into  England 
in  1874,  and  to  America  two  years  later.  This  sport  calls  for  an  active, 
rugged  pony  of  about  14-2  hands,  and  those  which  best  serve  the  pur- 
pose are  small-sized  or  dwarf  Thoroughbred  horses. 

The  horse  in  America. — From  an  equine  standpoint,  history  re- 
peats itself  to  a  considerable  degree  in  America  and  also  records  the 
creation  of  at  least  two  new  and  distinct  types  of  horses.  There  were 
no  horses  on  this  continent  at  the  time  of  its  discovery,  hence  American 
horse  history  dates  from  1492.  The  first  horses  were  brought  to  this 
continent  by  Cortes  and  Ferdinand  De  Soto.  Cortes  used  but  few 
horses  in  his  conquest  of  Mexico,  some  of  which  undoubtedly  became 
the  progenitors  of  the  wild  horse  of  the  western  plains.  Similarly, 
horses  abandoned  by  De  Soto  near  the  Texas  border  no  doubt  survived 
and  were  the  principal  foundation  of  the  American  wild  horse. 

In  colonial  times,  the  most  common  type  of  horse  was  a  small 
saddle  horse  measuring  not  more  than  14  hands.  These  were  the 
descendants  of  the  small,  unimproved  European  horses  brought  over 
by  the  first  settlers  and  were  of  no  particular  breed  or  breeding.  This 
little  colonial  saddle  horse  was  indispensable  as  a  utility  animal,  being 
practically  the  sole  means  of  transportation  in  those  early  times.  He 
was  likewise  a  source  of  amusement  and  recreation,  being  used  in 
running  matches  of  short  distances.  For  this  latter  purpose,  however, 
the  little  saddler  soon  gave  way  to  the  English  Thoroughbred  imported 
quite  extensively  by  the  early  settlers  of  the  Carolinas  and  Virginia. 

Field  labor  was  performed  by  oxen,  except  in  Pennsylvania  and 
New  York  where  Flemish  horses  had  been  introduced  from  Holland. 
This  Flemish  horse  was,  as  we  have  already  seen,  a  large  and  rather 
ungainly  animal,  and  when  the  colonies  expanded  westward,  this  horse 
was  used  to  haul  freight  over  the  mountains  from  eastern  ports  to 
Pittsburgh  and  Wheeling.  It  required  12,000  wagons  annually,  each 
pulled  by  four  or  six  horses,  driven  tandem,  to  carry  on  the  vast  freight- 


428  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

ing  business  which  developed,  and  the  freight  bill  amounted  to 
$1,500,000  in  a  year.  The  wagons  were  called  Conestoga  wagons,  and 
the  horses  were  given  the  same  name.  ^  With  the  coming  of  the  rail- 
road and  the  river  boat,  the  Conestoga  horses  and  wagons  were  quickly 
displaced  and  no  further  efforts  were  made  to  breed  heavy  horses  in 
America  until  about  1870.  The  blood  of  the  Conestoga  was  absorbed 
into  the  common  stock  of  the  country  and  the  type  became  extinct. 
Thus  we  see  that  Colonial  horse  stocks  were  of  three  types  only:  (1) 
the  little  saddle  horse,  (2)  the  Thoroughbred,  and  (3)  the  Conestoga. 

Origin  of  the  roadster  type. — With  the  opening  of  roadways, 
vehicles  were  quickly  brought  into  use,  so  quickly  indeed  that  the  so- 
called  roads  over  which  they  were  driven  were  little  more  than  clear- 
ings through  the  woods  with  here  and  there  a  "corduroy"  of  logs  to 
make  passable  som.e  marshy  spot.  The  roads  were  first  improved  in 
the  more  thickly  settled  parts  of  the  country,  and  it  was  thus  about 
Philadelphia  that  the  roadster  type  of  horse  was  originated  at  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  in  response  to  the  demand  for  a 
horse  suitable  for  road  driving  and  harness  racing.  The  Am^erican 
Standardbred  or  roadster  was  derived  from  four  sources:  (1)  the 
English  Thoroughbred,  (2)  the  Norfolk  Trotter,  (3)  the  Arab  and 
Barb,  and  (4)  certain  pacers  of  mixed  breeding.  By  selecting  and 
breeding  for  speed  at  the  trotting  and  pacing  gaits,  the  Standardbred 
breed  has  been  developed  and  today  may  be  called  a  true  breed,  al- 
though the  individuals  composing  it  show  considerable  divergence  in 
type.  In  Vermont  the  Morgan  horse  was  developed.  The  Morgans 
descended  from  one  horse,  Justin  Morgan,  whose  sire  was  a  Thorough- 
bred, but  whose  dam  was  of  unknown  breeding.  While  often  regarded 
as  a  breed,  they  really  constitute  a  family  of  the  Standardbred. 

American  Saddle  Horse. — At  the  time  roads  were  being  improved 
in  the  East,  Kentucky  and  the  West  were  still  a  country  of  bridle  paths 
only.  The  blue-grass  region  of  Kentucky  is  splendidly  adapted  to  the 
production  of  light  horses,  and  it  was  principally  in  that  state  and 
Missouri  that  the  American  Saddle  Horse  breed  originated  and  de- 
veloped. Kentucky  was  settled  in  1775,  and  as  early  as  1802  it  was 
said  that  "almost  all  of  the  inhabitants  employ  themselves  in  training 
and  ameliorating  the  breed  of  horses."  The  American  Saddle  Horse 
originated  from  crosses  of  the  Thoroughbred  upon  pacers  of  mixed 
breeding  which  had  been  brought  from  Canada.  Considerable  Morgan 
blood  entered  into  the  making  of  the  breed  also.  Starting  with  these 
materials,  a  type  of  saddle  horse  possessing  great  intelligence  and 


^The  name  "Conestoga"  is  said  to  be  derived  from  a  small  river  in  Lancaster 
County,  Pa.,  to  which  the  Indians  had  given  that  name. — John  Strohm:  The 
Conestoga  Horse,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  An.  Rpt.,  1863,  p.  175. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  429 

beauty  was  established.  These  horses  are  taught  five  or  more  distinct 
gaits,  and  as  a  result  of  years  of  selection  and  breeding,  there  is  today 
a  natural  inclination  on  the  part  of  the  American  Saddle  Horse  to  show 
these  gaits,  which  include  not  only  the  walk,  trot,  and  canter,  but  also 
the  rack,  running  walk,  fox  trot,  and  slow  pace. 

The  general -purpose  horse. — When  the  railway  displaced  the 
Conestoga  horse,  many  farmers  attempted  to  produce  what  was  styled 
"the  horse  of  all  work."  By  this  was  meant  a  general-purpose  horse 
useful  to  wagon,  plow,  or  under  saddle.  The  early  agricultural  papers 
were  full  of  advice  to  farmers  that  such  a  type  be  bred,  and  fair  associa- 
tions encouraged  the  movement  by  offering  prizes  for  this  class  of 
horses.  From  1840  to  1850  the  "horse  of  all  work"  was  the  horse  of 
the  day.  About  1850,  the  first  draft  stallions  were  imported  from 
Europe,  but  they  were  not  brought  over  with  the  idea  of  producing 
draft  horses  in  this  country,  but  to  breed  to  the  small  native  mares, 
with  which  this  country  was  well  supplied,  in  order  to  produce  a  general- 
purpose  horse.  Prior  to  this  there  were  some  attempts  to  produce 
such  a  horse  by  crossing  the  Thoroughbred  and  the  Conestoga,  but  the 
progeny  possessed  most  of  the  defects  of  both  parents  and  were  utterly 
unsuited  for  farm  use  or  anything  else.  By  1870,  breeders  had  come 
to  realize  that  there  is  more  profit  in  producing  specialized  types  of 
horses  useful  for  special  purposes,  rather  than  a  single  general-purpose 
type  not  capable  of  doing  anything  well.  Thus,  although  articles  still 
appear  occasionally  in  farm  papers  advising  the  production  of  a  general- 
purpose  horse,  and  although  some  county  fair  associations  persist  in 
offering  prizes  for  this  ancient  type,  the  general-purpose  horse  died  a 
natural  death  a  half-century  ago.     Let  him  rest  in  peace. 

The  draft  type  in  America.— About  1870,  there  arose  a  strong 
demand  from  cities  for  a  heavy  horse,  and  since  that  date  large  numbers 
of  Percheron,  Belgian,  Shire,  and  Clydesdale  stallions  and  mares  have 
been  imported  to  America  for  the  purpose  of  breeding  heavy  horses 
fitted  for  the  work  of  moving  heavy  loads  over  city  streets — in  other 
words,  draft  horses.  America  developed  no  draft  breed  of  her  own. 
After  the  Conestoga  disappeared  we  had  no  heavy  horses  to  use  as  a 
foundation  for  such  a  breed,  and  when  the  demand  arose  in  this  country 
several  European  countries  had  draft  breeds  ready  formed  which  we 
borrowed  from  them. 

The  carriage  horse  in  America. — In  America,  as  in  England,  the 
modem  carriage  horse  is  a  recent  addition  to  our  types  of  horses.  The 
more  wealthy  families  among  the  early  settlers  of  the  Carolinas  and 
Virginia  kept  coaches  for  use  on  state  and  social  occasions,  but  the  so- 
called  roads  were  so  miserable  that  driving  was  in  no  wise  a  pleasure. 
Most  of  the  carriages  in  use  in  the  early  days  were  stage  coaches  which 


430  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

did  the  work  now  done  by  railways.  In  1812,  the  fare  from  Philadel- 
phia to  Pittsburgh  over  the  national  turnpike,  297  miles,  was  $20  by 
coach,  and  it  required  six  days  to  cover  the  distance.  Crosses  of  the 
Flemish  horse  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  with  the  little  saddle 
horse  gave  the  well-knit,  sizeable  horses  required  on  these  early  coaches. 
With  the  growth  of  towns  and  cities,  carriages  became  common,  but 
the  horses  used  would  not  today  be  classed  as  carriage  horses  although 
they  were  of  a  serviceable  kind.  Driving  for  pleasure  and  pastime, 
which  in  later  years  became  so  popular  with  city  people,  did  not  begin 
until  after  the  Civil  War,  in  fact  it  was  not  until  1880  that  the  modern 
type  of  carriage  horse  came  into  use.  From  that  date  forward,  there 
was  a  large  and  increasing  demand  for  smoothly-turned,  high-stepping, 
well-mannered  horses,  weighing  from  1,000  to  1,200'  pounds.  The 
animals  which  supplied  this  demand  were  for  the  most  part  recruited 
from  the  ranks  of  the  Standardbred  and  American  Saddle  Horse,  al- 
though our  very  choicest  carriage  animals  have  been  English  Hack- 
neys. Since  1900  the  automobile  has  displaced  a  great  many  carriage 
horses,  especially  those  of  mediocre  quality,  but  there  still  exists  a 
demand  for  animals  of  show-yard  quality  for  which  good  prices  are  paid. 

Efifects  of  mechanical  inventions  on  horse  types. — The  invention 
of  firearms  resulted  in  a  change  in  the  type  of  the  cavalry  horse  from 
the  old-time  heavy  war  horse  to  a  lighter  animal  with  more  speed. 
The  displaced  type  did  not  become  extinct,  but  was  put  to  use  in  the 
fields.  The  invention  of  the  railway  and  steamboat  and  the  building 
of  canals  restricted  the  horse's  field  of  usefulness  by  displacing  the 
stage  coaches  and  the  Conestoga  horses  and  wagons.  The  Conestoga 
type  then  became  extinct,  being  mingled  and  absorbed  into  the  common 
stock  of  the  country.  In  France  the  diligence  horse  was  gradually 
developed  into  the  Percheron  breed.  The  application  of  electric  power 
to  street  railways  in  1888  closed  a  channel  of  disposal  for  thousands 
of  cheap  horses  such  as  were  used  on  the  old-time  horse  cars,  and  the 
perfection  of  the  bicycle  and  the  fad  for  cycling  which  followed  led 
many  to  believe  a  horseless  age  was  at  hand.  But  the  street-car  horse 
was  not  a  profitable  animal  to  produce,  and  many  who  took  up  the 
bicycle  never  owned  a  horse  anyway.  Horses  came  into  greater  de- 
mand and  brought  higher  prices  than  ever  before. 

Next  came  the  automobile,  the  motor  truck,  and  the  tractor  and 
again  a  horseless  age  was  predicted.  It  is  a  fact  that  the  motor  is  the 
strongest  mechanical  competitor  the  horse  has  had  to  meet,  and  while 
it  is  impossible  at  this  time  to  say  with  exactness  what  the  effects  will 
be  on  horse  production,  enough  time  has  elapsed  to  show  that  the 
horse  yet  has  an  important  place  on  city  streets  and  on  roadways,  as 
well  as  on  the  farm.     The  automobile,  motor  truck,  and  tractor  are 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  431 

not  only  doing  the  work  that  is  also  done  by  horses,  but  they  are  doing 
work  which  the  horse  cannot  do.  In  other  words,  the  motor  has  to  a 
large  extent  created  its  own  necessity.  There  is,  on  the  other  hand, 
a  vast  amount  of  horse  work  of  various  kinds  which  cannot  be  done 
by  motors.  The  horse  and  the  motor  each  occupy  fields  of  their  own, 
the  margins  of  which  overlap  to  some  extent,  and  here  competition  be- 
tween the  horse  and  motor  is  keen.  The  carriage  horse  and  roadster 
have  felt  this  competition  most. 

Many  large  business  firms  have  sold  their  draft  horses  and  installed 
motor  trucks,  only  to  discover  that  the  short  haul  may  be  made  more 
economically  with  horses,  and  they  have  therefore  reinstated  horse 
equipment  along  with  their  motor  trucks.  Farmers  have  found  that 
tractor  manufacturers  are  over-enthusiastic  regarding  the  tractor's 
ability  to  displace  the  horse  upon  the  farm.  The  horse's  place  in  the 
realm  of  sport  is  undisturbed  by  the  automobile.  Saddle  horses,  in- 
cluding the  hunter  and  polo  pony,  are  in  good  demand,  and  racing  in 
harness  and  under  saddle  continues  to  prosper  throughout  the  countrj\ 

Classification  of  the  breeds. — The  breeds  of  horses  may  be  classi- 
fied according  to  type  as  follows,  mention  being  made  of  the  place  of 
origin  and  of  the  number  of  registered  purebred  animals  of  each  breed 
in  the  United  States  on  January  1,  1920,  as  reported  by  the  census: 

Type  Breed  Place  of  origin  Number 

fPercheron France 70,613 

JBelgian Belgium 10,838 

J  Shire England 5,617 

•  •  •   IClydesdale Scotland 4,248 

Suffolk England (M 

[French  Draft  ^ France 2,964 

(Hackney England 564 

Cleveland  Bay England ( ' ) 

Yorkshire  Coach England ( M 

French  Coach France ( M 

German  Coach Germany 697 

fStandardbred United  States 4,021 

Roadster  Type { Morgan United  States ( « ) 

[Orloff  Trotter Russia ( M 

f  American  Saddle  Horse United  States 1,459 

Saddle  Type {Thoroughbred England 3,801 

[Arabian Arabia ( * ) 

[Shetland Shetland  Islands ( M 

Ponies ]Welsh Wales (M 

[Hackney England .  (» ) 

All  other 15,718 


Draft  Type. 


Total 120,540 

1  In  the  United  SUtes  the  term  "French  Draft"  includes  all  animals  registered  in  the  National 
Register  of  French  Draft  Horses.  All  breeds  of  French  draft  horses  are  eligible  to  registry  in  this  stud 
book.  These  are  the  Percheron,  Boulonnais,  Nivernais,  Ardennais,  and  Bretonnais.  However,  the  Per- 
cherons  have  their  own  stud  book,  the  Percheron  Stud  Book  of  America,  and  nearly  all  registered  pixre- 
bred  Percherons  in  this  country  are  recorded  in  it.  Horses  registered  in  the  Percheron  book  are  Percherons; 
those  registered  in  the  other  stud  book  are  French  Draft. 

'  Not  separately  reported. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
DRAFT  TYPE 

The  first  question  which  presents  itself  is — What  is  a  draft  horse? 
A  draft  horse  is  a  horse  adapted  to  the  work  of  pulHng  heavy  loads  at 
a  walk.  The  conditions  of  street  traffic  in  large  cities  demand  the 
hauling  of  the  largest  possible  loads.  Distances  are  great  and  delays 
waste  much  time.  At  street  crossings,  bridges,  and  at  railway  cross- 
ings, minutes  are  lost  that  in  a  day  count  up  to  hours.  At  sidings  and 
warehouses,  it  is  a  lucky  chance  if  a  team  can  get  up  to  its  door  or  car 
without  waiting  for  one  or  more  wagons  to  be  loaded  or  unloaded 
ahead  of  it.  There  is  thus  a  natural  tendency  for  teamsters  to  haul  big 
loads  in  order  to  move  the  freight,  and  this  makes  big  horses  necessary. 
Furthermore,  big  wagons,  big  loads,  and  big  horses  enable  merchants 
to  move  the  goods  with  less  equipment  and  fewer  drivers,  and  lessen 
expenditures  for  shoeing,  feed,  stabling,  harness,  and  repairs.  There 
is  thus  a  tendency  toward  big  horses  and  big  loads  in  all  cases  where 
quick  delivery  is  not  imperative,  and  where  loading  and  unloading 
are  done  at  one  or  a  few  points.  The  heavy  loading  of  wagons  has 
gone  so  far  that  many  cities  have  placed  restrictions  upon  the  size  of 
loads,  in  order  to  protect  draft  animals  from  abuse.  In  Chicago,  the 
maximum  load  for  a  single  horse  or  mule  is  3,500  pounds,  and  when 
two  or  more  horses  are  hitched  together,  the  maximum  is  4,000  pounds 
per  animal. 

We  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  drafter  is  not  only  adapted  to 
pulling  heavy  loads  at  a  slow  gait,  but  that  this  work  is  done  on  hard 
pavements  in  the  city.  The  draft  horse  not  only  does  the  hardest  kind 
of  work  required  of  horses,  but  he  works  under  conditions  which  put 
his  feet  and  legs  to  a  severe  test.  The  drafter  may  be  said  to  be  the 
real  business  horse,  whereas  the  carriage  horse,  roadster,  and  saddle 
horse  are  largely  used  for  pleasure  purposes. 

In  order  to  do  the  work  required  of  him,  the  draft  horse  must 
possess  the  following  qualifications:  (1)  Weight,  (2)  strength,  (3) 
true,  snappy  action,  (4)  endurance  and  durability,  (5)  feeding  capacity, 
and  (6)  good  disposition. 

1.  Weight  is  decidedly  essential.  The  heavier  the  horse,  the 
more  adhesion  he  has  to  the  ground.  When  a  horse  is  working  in  har- 
ness, the  traces  tend  to  lift  the  fore  feet  off  the  ground,  and  for  this 
reason  a  heavy  horse  is  able  to  use  his  weight  to  good  advantage.  In 
stage-coach  days  it  was  a  common  trick  for  the  driver  to  throw  a  bag 

432 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  433 

of  meal  across  a  horse's  back,  or  get  upon  a  horse  himself,  in  case  the 
coach  got  into  a  place  where  a  hard  pull  was  necessary.  By  so  doing, 
his  team  was  often  able  to  start  the  load  without  other  assistance. 
The  added  weight  produced  more  adhesion  between  the  feet  and  the 
ground,  thus  enabling  the  animal  to  exert  all  his  strength  at  a  pull, 
instead  of  uselessly  "scratching  gravel"  when  trying  to  start. 

Standing  on  a  hard  surface,  a  man  of  200  pounds  weight  can  easily 
outpull  a  man  of  150  pounds  in  a  tug-of-war.  If  the  150-pound  man 
take  another  man  upon  his  shoulders  and  back,  however,  he  can  defeat 
his  opponent  who  outweighs  him  by  50  pounds.  The  man  on  the 
shoulders  of  the  150-pound  contestant  adds  nothing  to  the  muscular 
power  at  that  end  of  the  rope,  but  rather  lessens  it;  but  the  added 
weight  and  the  increase  in  adhesion  permit  the  full  strength  of  muscles 
to  be  more  nearly  exerted,  and  the  200-pound  man  is  readily  defeated. 

The  horse  moves  a  load  by  (1)  simply  leaning  against  the  collar, 
and  (2)  by  muscular  strength.  Thus  weight  has  a  second  advantage 
in  that  it  takes  the  place  of  some  of  the  muscular  energy,  for  the 
weight  of  a  heavy  horse  more  nearly  offsets  the  weight  of  the  load  than 
does  the  weight  of  a  smaller  horse,  and  every  extra  pound  thrown 
against  the  collar  means  a  corresponding  reduction  in  muscular  force 
required  in  moving  the  load.  Then,  too,  as  a  rule,  the  larger  the  horse, 
the  stronger  he  will  be. 

To  sum  up,  weight  in  the  draft  horse  has  three  values:  (1)  It 
gives  the  feet  more  adhesion  with  the  pavement  or  ground,  so  that  the 
muscular  power  may  be  applied  to  the  collar,  (2)  by  offsetting  some  of 
the  weight  of  the  load,  it  lessens  the  amount  of  muscular  exertion  re- 
quired, and  (8)  as  a  rule,  the  heavier  the  horse,  the  stronger  he  will  be. 
Some  horses  make  up  for  a  lack  of  weight  by  their  superior  ambition 
and  courage. 

2.  Strength  is  a  matter  of  muscling.  Draft  horses  must  be  very 
muscular  throughout,  especially  in  the  hindquarters.  When  judging 
drafters,  fat  should  not  be  mistaken  for  muscle. 

3.  Action  that  is  straight  and  true  insures  conservation  of  energy 
and  sure-footedness.  The  action  should  also  be  snappy;  this  enables 
the  animal  to  get  over  the  ground  rapidly,  and  shows  a  willing  disposi- 
tion. Action  is  also  valuable  as  an  index  to  the  way  the  horse  is  put 
together;  true  action  can  result  only  from  proper  placing  of  the  feet 
and  legs,  in  fact,  from  a  proper  proportionment  of  all  parts,  and  their 
proper  relation  to  one  another.  Correct  action,  showing  trueness, 
snap,  and  length  of  stride,  results  from  a  rather  rare  combination  of 
proper  structure,  muscling,  and  temperament.  Therefore  good  action 
is  not  only  valuable  in  itself,  but  is  good  evidence  of  merit  in  the  entire 
make-up  of  the  horse. 


434  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

4.  Endurance  means  the  ability  to  do  the  day's  work  without 
fagging.  Durability  means  the  ability  to  work  day  after  day  without 
breaking  down  under  the  strain.  Endurance  is  concerned  mostly  with 
wind,  muscling,  and  feeding  capacity,  while  durability  depends  mostly 
upon  the  feet  and  legs.  Some  first-hand  horses  last  but  six  months, 
or  even  less,  on  city  streets.  Others  last  as  long  as  fifteen  years,  and, 
in  some  cases,  even  longer.  If  a  draft  horse  goes  to  pieces  quickly 
when  put  to  work,  he  is  a  considerable  loss  to  the  owner.  Feet  and 
legs  are  the  parts  most  liable  to  prove  defective.  Lack  of  wind  is  a 
common  fault.  The  horse  with  a  short  rib  seldom  stands  up  to  hard 
labor  very  long.  Buyers  refuse  to  invest  much  money  in  horses  that 
are  shallow  bodied  and  cut  up  high  in  the  flank,  such  animals  being 
poor  feeders. 

5.  Feeding  capacity. — The  horse  is  comparable  to  a  locomotive. 
He  consumes  hay  and  grain  for  fuel.  Other  things  being  equal,  the 
greater  the  amount  of  fuel  consumed,  the  greater  the  work  that  can 
be  done.     The  drafter  should  be  a  good  feeder. 

6.  Disposition. — To  be  of  greatest  usefulness  a  draft  horse  must 
be  a  prompt,  willing  worker  that  will  be  pleasant  to  handle,  active, 
and  quick  to  respond  to  commands,  yet  quiet  and  docile. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  TYPE 

General  appearance. — The  form  of  the  draft  horse  is  broad,  deep, 
massive,  compact,  rather  low  set,  symmetrical,  and  stylish.  He  should 
have  a  short  back  and  a  long  underline.  He  must  weigh  not  less  than 
1,600  pounds,  and  ton  horses  are  the  sort  to  keep  in  mind  as  draft 
horses.  Weights  over  a  ton  are  not  uncommon.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated, on  the  basis  of  weights  and  prices  for  horses  at  the  large  markets, 
that  every  100  pounds  above  1,500  adds  $25  to  the  horse's  value.  As 
to  height,  drafters  usually  stand  from  16  to  17  hands.  The  height  over 
the  hips  should  be  no  greater  than  at  the  withers,  as  this  detracts  from 
the  symmetrical  appearance,  throws  more  weight  upon  the  f  orequarters, 
and  makes  the  action  stilted  and  heavy.  Although  the  short-legged 
horse  is  more  powerful,  the  horse  with  slightly  more  length  of  leg  will 
take  a  longer  stride,  and  may  therefore  be  more  useful.  Some  buyers 
also  prefer  a  certain  degree  of  height  in  the  drafter  because  they  use 
wagons  with  a  high  top  or  cover,  and  a  short-legged  horse  would  not 
be  in  harmony  with  such  vehicles.  At  this  point  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  a  great  many  firms  desire  horses  which  are  not  only  able  to  do 
their  work  successfully,  but  which  also  have  considerable  style  and 
beauty  that  will  attract  attention  on  the  streets  and  help  to  advertise 
the  firm  and  its  business.  To  this  end,  a  great  deal  of  money  is  in- 
vested in  vehicles  nicely  designed  and  ornamented,  which  are  horsed 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


435 


with  animals  that  add  to,  rather  than  detract  from,  the  appearance  of 
the  turnout.     Buyers  keep  the  vehicle  in  mind  when  buying  horses. 

Quality  and  substance,  as  shown  in  head,  hair,  hoofs,  bone,  and 
joints,  should  be  preeminent.  Substance  refers  particularly  to  the  size 
of  the  bone  as  shown  in  cannons  and  joints,  while  quality  refers  to  the 
fineness  of  texture  of  all  parts.  Quality  associated  with  substance 
insures  good  wearing  qualities.  Quality  is  shown  in  bone  that  is  hard 
and  smooth,  joints  that  are  well  defined  or  clean,  and  cannons  and 
pasterns  that  are  entirely  free  from  meatiness.  As  previously  ex- 
plained, it  is  objectionable  for  a  horse  to  be  meaty  in  his  knees  or  hocks 
or  in  the  parts  below  them.     The  term  "clean,"  as  applied  to  the 


Fig.  163. — Points  of  the  horse. 


1. 

Muzzle 

12. 

Crest 

22. 

Fetlock  joint 

32. 

Croup 

2. 

Nostril 

13. 

Withers 

23. 

Pastern 

33. 

Tail 

3. 

Face 

14. 

Shoulder 

24. 

Coronet 

34. 

Thigh 

4. 

Eye 

15. 

Point  of  shoulder 

25. 

Foot 

35. 

Point  of  buttock 

5. 

Forehead 

16. 

Breast 

26. 

Ribs 

36. 

Quarters 

6. 

Ear 

17. 

Arm 

27. 

Belly 

37. 

Stifle 

7. 

Poll 

18. 

Elbow 

28. 

Flank 

38. 

Gaskin 

8. 

Cheek 

19. 

Forearm 

29. 

Back 

39. 

Hock 

9. 

Jaw 

20. 

Knee 

30. 

Coupling 

40. 

Chestnut 

10. 

Throttle 

21. 

Cannon 

31. 

Hip 

41. 

Sheath 

11. 

Neck 

hocks,  knees,  cannons,  ankles,  and  pasterns,  means  that  these  parts 
are  entirely  free  from  meatiness,  swelling,  or  other  unnatural  develop- 
ment, so  that  the  natural  structure  is  sharply  and  clearly    defined. 


436 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


Clean  legs  are  one  of  the  best  and  most  important  evidences  of  good 
quality.  The  cannons  of  some  draft  breeds  have  more  or  less  long 
hair,  called  "feather."  If  it  is  fine  and  "pily,"  rather  than  coarse 
and  curly,  it  indicates  quality,  for  fine  hair  seldom  covers  rough,  coarse 
bone.  The  entire  coat,  including  mane  and  tail,  also  indicates  quality 
if  the  hair  is  soft  and  fine.  The  horse  with  quality  will  have  a  head  of 
medium  size,  a  neat  ear,  a  trim  muzzle,  and  a  chiseled  appearance 
about  the  face  and  jaws.  He  also  has  hoofs  of  fine  texture  which  will 
wear  well,  and  his  joints  are  less  subject  to  bony  diseases. 


Fig.  164. — A  grand  champion  draft  gelding.  Master,  an  imported  Clydesdale 
gelding,  grand  champion  at  the  1922  International  Show.  Exhibited  by  the  National 
Biscuit  Company  of  New  York.  Note  the  style  and  quality  of  this  gelding,  the 
correctly  placed  clean  legs,  sloping  pasterns,  and  well-balanced  conformation. 

The  size  of  the  head  should  be  proportionate  to  the  size  of  the 
horse.  A  pony  head  is  not  the  right  sort  for  a  draft  horse,  and  a  barrel 
head  indicates  coarseness  and  lack  of  good  breeding.  Every  line  and 
feature  should  be  distinct;  there  should  be  a  chiseled  appearance  that 
indicates  character,  quality,  and  good  breeding.  Great  width  between 
the  eyes  and  a  broad,  full  forehead  show  intelligence.  The  eyes  should 
be  large,  bright,  clear,  and  very  prominent,  to  insure  good  vision,  for 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  437 

the  horse  should  be  able  to  see  where  he  is  stepping.  The  nose  and 
muzzle  should  be  broad,  indicating  a  good  feeder.  The  nostrils  should 
be  large  (but  not  permanently  distended),  to  provide  easy  breathing. 
Trim  lips  that  are  thin  show  quality  and  refinement.  Strong  cheeks, 
and  jaws  that  are  wide  across  underneath,  provide  good  grinding  ability 
for  proper  mastication  of  feed.  The  ears  should  be  of  fine  texture  and 
medium  size,  and  should  be  set  well  up  toward  the  poll  and  carried 
alert.  Ears  set  down  on  the  side  of  the  head  and  carried  in  a  lopping 
fashion  decidedly  injure  the  appearance.  The  expression  of  the  eye 
and  the  carriage  of  the  ear  are  good  evidences  of  the  temperament  and 
disposition.'  The  head  should  be  of  medium  length,  and,  as  viewed  in 
profile,  the  face  line  should  be  rather  straight.  A  Roman  face  line 
indicates  a  strong,  determined  will,  and  is  not  desirable. 

The  neck  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  at  least  medium  long,  and 
should  be  very  muscular,  with  some  degree  of  crest  or  arch  to  the  top. 
The  crest  should  be  pronounced  in  the  stallion,  but  not  so  excessive  as 
to  break  over  to  one  side.  At  the  junction  with  the  body,  the  neck 
should  be  very  deep,  but  at  the  throttle  it  should  be  very  trim  and 
rather  cut  up  underneath,  with  no  fullness  or  thickness  there  to  bring 
pressure  on  the  windpipe.  The  head  and  neck  should  be  carried  well  up, 
to  insure  good  vision,  lighten  the  forehand,  and  improve  the  appearance. 

The  shoulders  should  be  very  deep,  muscular,  and  have  much 
slope.  An  upright  shoulder  results  in  transmission  of  shock,  and  also 
in  shortness  of  stride.  A  sloping,  muscular  shoulder  that  is  laid  in 
snugly  is  conducive  to  good  action.  Frequently,  the  shoulders  are 
too  open  and  prominent,  so  that  the  horse  does  not  stand  over  his  legs 
as  he  should.  Such  horses  do  not  take  a  straight  stride,  but  swing 
their  legs  outward  when  in  action. 

The  tops  of  the  shoulder  blades  should  come  well  together  so  that 
the  withers  may  be  well  defined,  though  muscular  and  not  as  sharp  as 
in  the  lighter  kinds  of  horses. 

The  breast  ^should  be  wide  and  very  muscular. 

The  chest  should  be  full,  wide,  and  deep,  to  provide  room  for  heart 
and  lungs.  The  horse  is  an  athlete,  and  large  lungs  and  good  heart 
action  are  very  essential.  A  contracted  heart-girth  shows  lack  of  con- 
stitution. There  is  no  such  thing  as  too  much  heart-girth  or  chest 
capacity. 

The  arm  should  be  very  muscular,  and  should  be  thrown  forward 
to  give  slope  to  the  shoulder. 

The  forearm  should  be  powerfully  muscled,  so  that  as  viewed 
from  the  side  it  appears  very  broad  next  to  the  body,  tapering  to  the 
knee.  No  muscles  are  present  below  the  knees  and  hocks,  hence  the 
action  is  dependent  upon  the  muscles  above  these  joints. 


438  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

The  knee  must  be  broad  from  every  point  of  view,  and  must  be 
deep  from  top  to  bottom.  This  provides  a  large  joint,  indicating 
strength.  The  knee  must  also  be  straight,  so  as  to  set  the  leg  straight 
below  the  body.  There  must  be  no  meatiness  about  the  knee  or  any 
of  the  joints  or  parts  below,  for,  as  has  been  stated,  all  muscles  end 
above  the  knee  and  are  attached  to  the  parts  below  by  tendons.  Meati- 
ness about  the  knee  interferes  with  the  working  of  the  tendons,  and 
lessens  the  free  and  easy  flexion  of  the  joints.  Hence  the  knee  should 
be  clean,  flat  across  the  front,  and  well  defined.     This  is  essential. 

The  cannons  should  be  short  and  clean,  with  the  tendons  large 
and  set  well  back  from  the  bone.  As  viewed  from  the  side,  there 
should  be  good  width,  and  the  cannon  should  be  flat  instead  of  round. 
As  one  passes  the  hand  along  the  cannon  bone,  it  should  feel  smooth, 
hard,  and  dense.  The  skin  and  hair  covering  it  should  be  fine.  Be- 
tween the  bone  and  the  tendons  there  should  be  well-marked  depres- 
sions or  grooves.  Meatiness  about  the  cannons  is  as  objectionable  as 
it  is  about  the  joints,  and  for  similar  reasons.  The  cannons  furnish 
one  of  the  best  means  of  determining  quality.  Clean,  flat,  smooth 
cannons  have  bone  that  is  composed  of  fine  cells,  and  that  is  flinty  in 
character.  Coarse,  rough  bone  is  made  up  of  large  cells,  and  is  porous 
and  spongy.  Too  much  refinement  of  bone  is  often  found  in  the  draft 
horse.  On  the  other  hand,  large  bone  is  frequently  found  which  is 
very  lacking  in  quality.  There  should  be  a  combination  of  substance 
with  quality.  It  is  possible  to  make  up  in  quality  a  certain  lack  of 
substance,  but  not  the  contrary. 

The  fetlock  joint  should  be  wide  from  front  to  back,  clean,  and 
well  defined. 

The  pasterns  should  be  oblique  to  relieve  concussion,  and  should 
show  reasonable  length.  A  slope  of  about  45  degrees  is  desired. 
More  slope  than  this  tends  toward  weakness.  The  pasterns  should 
show  plenty  of  substance,  yet  be  clean,  and  should  spread  out  or 
expand  at  the  lower  end  into  wide,  round,  open  hoof-heads  or  coronets. 

Feet. — The  old  saying,  "No  foot,  no  horse,"  is  full  of  truth.  A 
draft  horse  of  excellence  in  all  respects  except  feet  is  as  worthless  as  a 
fine  building  on  a  flimsy  foundation.  When  it  is  considered  to  what 
great  stress  the  foot  of  the  draft  horse  is  subjected,  the  wonder  is  that 
feet  last  as  long  as  they  do  on  hard  pavements.  Driven  against  cobble- 
stones and  brick  by  the  great  weight  of  the  body  above,  the  fore  feet 
undergo  repeated  shocks  which  soon  batter  to  pieces  feet  that  are  defec- 
tive. The  foot  should  be  large,  to  afford  a  large  bearing  surface. 
When  viewed  from  front  or  side,  the  axis  of  the  foot  should  coincide 
with  the  axis  of  the  pastern.  The  hoof  should  appear  dense,  waxy, 
and  smooth,  indicating  toughness  and  durability.     The  form  of  the 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  439 

hoof  should  be  round.  Inasmuch  as  the  wall  of  the  hoof  grows  out 
from  the  coronet  or  hoof-head,  the  size  and  shape  of  the  foot  will  depend 
largely  upon  the  size  and  shape  of  the  hoof-head,  which  should  there- 
fore be  large  and  round.  A  foot  that  is  large  on  the  ground  and 
cramped  and  small  at  the  hoof-head  has  too  much  flare  of  the  wall  to 
provide  strength,  and  is  not  a  good  foot.  The  sole  should  be  concave, 
as  this  means  strength.  Flatness  of  sole  is  a  common  fault  among 
draft  horses.  The  bars  should  be  strong  to  insure  agamst  contraction 
of  the  heels,  and  the  frog  should  be  large  and  elastic.     The  heels  should 


Fig.  165. — The  draft  type.  Big  Jim,  four  times  grand  champion  draft  gelding 
at  the  International.  J.  H.  S.  Johnstone,  of  the  Live  Stock  World,  wrote  the  follow- 
ing regarding  Big  Jim  when  announcing  his  death  in  1910:  "There  never  was  a 
prouder  stepper  in  harness,  and  there  never  was  a  big  one  that  held  himself  together 
and  went  at  his  work  in  a  more  sprightly  manner.  His  size  was  immense — 2,385 
pounds — and  not  one  of  his  competitors  ever  approached  him  in  that  regard.  Per- 
sonally I  do  not  expect  to  see  his  like  again." 

be  very  wide  and  fairly  high,  and  the  fore  feet  should  be  symmetrically 
made  and  uniform  in  size  and  shape.  The  position  of  the  feet  and  legs 
should  be  as  described  in  Chapter  XXIX. 

The  ribs  should  be  well  sprung  and  deep,  giving  a  wide,  deep  body. 
Such  a  conformation  provides  a  strong  middle-piece,  gives  the  neces- 
sary weight  to  the  animal,  and  indicates  good  digestive  capacity,  as 


440  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

well  as  ample  room  for  heart  and  lungs.  The  distance  from  the  last 
rib  to  the  hip  should  be  short,  and  the  flank  should  be  deep.  Horsemen 
speak  of  a  deep,  full  flank  as  a  "good  bread  basket,"  and  in  certain 
sections  of  the  country  where  a  business  is  made  of  feeding  drafters 
for  market,  care  is  taken  to  select  animals  for  feeding  that  have  deep, 
full  middles,  for  the  other  kind  are  poor  feeders  and  cannot  easily  be 
made  fat.  The  horse  that  is  cut  up  high  in  the  flank  is  said  to  be 
"wasp  waisted,"  "tucked  up,"  or  "washy."  When  put  to  work,  such 
horses  show  lack  of  endurance  or  stamina,  for  they  do  not  consume 
enough  feed  to  replace  the  energy  expended  in  doing  hard  labor;  hence 
they  become  very  thin  in  flesh,  and  are  unable  to  do  hard  work  for 
many  days  in  succession.  The  middle  of  the  draft  horse  in  good  flesh 
should  be  very  large,  and  as  round  as  a  dollar. 

The  back  forms  the  connection  between  the  power,  which  is  in  the 
hindquarters,  and  the  point  of  application  of  this  power,  which  is  the 
shoulder.  A  short,  rather  straight,  broad  back  that  is  heavily  muscled 
affords  the  strongest  conformation.  A  short,  wide  back  is  not  only 
more  rigid  than  a  long,  narrow  one,  but  also  brings  the  power  closer 
to  the  collar;  it  is  therefore  much  desired  because  of  its  mechanical 
advantage  over  the  long,  rangy  conformation. 

The  loin  is  usually  called  the  "coupling."  It  lies  just  in  front  of 
the  hips,  and  includes  those  vertebrae  which  have  no  ribs  below  them. 
The  loin,  lika  the  back,  should  be  short,  broad,  and  heavily  muscled. 

Beginning  with  the  hips  and  continuing  throughout  the  hind- 
quarters, we  are  dealing  with  the  location  of  those  muscles  which  fur- 
nish power  for  draft,  hence  we  want  an  appearance  of  great  massive- 
ness  everywhere.  It  used  to  be  thought  that  the  draft  horse  did  his 
work  simply  by  falling  against  the  collar,  thus  bringing  his  weight  to 
bear,  and  consequently  that  his  forequarters  ought  to  be  as  heavy  as 
possible;  it  was  no  harm  if  his  shoulders  were  straight,  and  as  for  his 
hindquarters,  it  did  not  matter  much  what  they  were.  But  this  idea 
has  been  exploded  and  it  is  now  known  that  he  pulls  by  muscle  more 
than  by  weight,  and  much  more  by  the  muscles  of  his  hindquarters 
than  by  those  of  his  forequarters.  So  we  want  the  hips  of  the  drafter 
to  be  wide  and  heavily  muscled,  yet  smooth. 

A  very  broad  and  long  croup  gives  the  greatest  area  for  the  laying 
on  of  muscle.  It  should  also  be  fairly  level  from  hips  to  setting  on  of 
tail.  A  steep  croup  not  only  detracts  from  the  appearance,  but  is 
also  usually  associated  with  shortness  of  croup,  weakness  of  coupling, 
and  crooked  hind  legs.  The  croup  should  be  covered  with  heavy, 
massive  muscles. 

The  tail  should  be  attached  high,  and  should  be  full  haired  and 
well  carried. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


441 


The  thighs  should  be  very  wide  and  should  bulge  with  muscle,  and 
the  quarters  should  be  very  deep  and  heavy.  The  stifle  should  like- 
wise be  heavily  muscled,  and  there  should  be  great  width  through  the 
hindquarters  from  stifle  to  stifle.  Viewed  from  the  side,  the  thigh 
should  be  very  wide  from  stifle  to  end  of  body. 

The  gaskins,  like  the  forearms,  should  be  very  wide  and  bulging 
with  muscle. 

Hocks. — Suppose  we  have  a  pair  of  ton  horses  hitched  to  a  big 
load.  When  the  word  is  given  to  start,  the  horses  extend  and  lower 
their  heads,  lean  against  the  collar,  crouch  down  behind  by  bringing 
their  hind  feet  forward  and  flexing  their  hocks,  and  then  the  pull  of 


Fig.  166. — Six   high-class   well-matched    dralt    geldings   owned    by    Chestnut 
Farms,  Walkersville,  Md.    , 


the  powerful  muscles  of  the  hindquarters  extends  the  hock  joint  and 
straightens  the  hind  leg,  thus  bringing  great  pressure  against  the  collar, 
and  the  load  moves.  The  point  to  be  remembered  is  that  an  enor- 
mous strain  comes  upon  the  hock,  and  if  there  is  any  weakness  in  that 
joint  it  is  certain  to  cause  trouble.  The  hock  must  be  large,  clean, 
wide  both  ways,  and  deep,  and  the  point  of  the  hock  should  be  promi- 
nent. It  should  be  straight  from  top  to  bottom.  Hocks  that  are 
badly  sickled,  bowed  outward,  or  cow  hocked  are  not  stout  enough  to 
match  the  strength  of  the  muscles  above.  They  thus  limit  the  power 
of  the  horse  and  are  likely  to  become  unsound.  Fleshiness  and  puff's 
are  distinctly  objectionable.     Thick,  meaty  hocks  are  too  common  in 


442 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


draft  horses.  A  clean  appearance,  so  that  every  angle  and  Hne  of  the 
joint  is  apparent,  is  very  much  desired. 

The  requirements  for  hind  cannons,  pasterns,  and  feet  are  almost 
identical  with  those  in  front.  However,  the  hind  cannons  are  always 
longer  and  usually  broader  than  the  front  ones.  Also,  the  hind  pas- 
terns are  seldom  so  sloping,  and  the  hind  feet  are  not  quite  so  large  or 
round.  There  is  less  concussion  behind  than  in  front,  but  the  stress 
is  much  greater  at  the  pull,  hence  it  is  proper  that  hind  pasterns  and 
feet  be  a  little  more  erect,  in  order  to  provide  the  necessary  strength 
of  conformation. 

From  what  has  been  said  above,  the  value  of  a  properly  set  hind 
leg,  as  viewed  from  behind,  is  emphasized.  If  the  horse  is  "bow 
legged,"  his  legs  will  prove  weak  when  the  strain  is  put  upon  them. 


Fig.  167. — ^Heavy  drafters  in  harness.  This  is  the  noted  team  of  grays  which 
was  invincible  at  the  leading  shows  a  few  years  ago.  They  were  shown  both  in  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain.  Big  Jim  was  the  near  wheeler  in  this  team.  Owned 
by  Armour  and  Company  of  Chicago. 


Walking  on  a  crooked  hind  leg  is  comparable  to  driving  a  bent  nail. 
The  force  of  the  hammer  bends  the  nail  instead  of  driving  it  into  the 
wood,  and  a  crooked  hind  leg  bows  outward  instead  of  remaining  rigid 
and  transmitting  full  force  against  the  collar. 

Now  that  the  details  of  the  drafter's  conformation  have  been  de- 
scribed, a  word  may  be  added  regarding  symmetry  or  proportionment 
of  parts.  The  fact  is  that  some  horses  are  good  in  their  various  parts, 
yet  fail  to  present  a  good  appearance.  What  they  lack  is  symmetry. 
The  head  may  be  good,  and  the  neck  may  be  good  also,  but  the  two 
may  be  joined  at  an  angle  which  injures  the  appearance.  The  neck 
may  not  rise  from  the  shoulders  as  it  should.  The  feet  may  be  good, 
but  may  be  too  small  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  size  and  weight  of  the 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  443 

animal.  The  top  line  from  head  to  tail  may  be  an  irregular  line  full 
of  angles,  whereas  it  should  be  gracefully  curved.  The  hips  may  be 
wide,  which  is  desirable,  yet  they  should  not  be  wide  out  of  all  propor- 
tion to  the  rest  of  the  body,  so  as  to  be  ragged  and  prominent.  Seem- 
ingly small  factors  such  as  these  may  or  may  not  affect  the  horse's 
usefulness  for  work,  but  frequently  they  constitute  the  difference  be- 
tween a  plain  animal  and  one  of  show-yard  character,  between  which 
there  is  a  great  difference  in  price.  One  horse  looks  as  though  he  were 
made  up  of  a  lot  of  different-sized  parts  which  do  not  fit  well  together, 
while  the  other  seems  cast  from  a  carefully  prepared  mould.  Standing 
in  natural  position,  the  symmetrical  horse  carries  his  head  and  neck 
well  up,  so  that  the  face  line,  shoulder,  and  pastern  all  slope  at  nearly 
the  same  angle;  the  croup  is  fairly  level  from  hips  to  tail,  the  tail  is 
set  high,  and  all  parts  of  his  conformation  are  so  proportioned  as  to 
give  him  a  well-balanced  appearance. 

The  action  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  true,  snappy,  and  bold. 
As  you  see  him  going  or  coming,  the  movement  of  the  legs  should  be 
straight  in  the  line  of  motion,  the  feet  being  carried  true,  with  no 
paddling  or  irregularity  of  gait.  Walking  away  from  you,  he  should 
move  with  enough  snap  to  give  you  the  flash  of  his  shoe  at  every  step. 
As  you  view  him  in  action  from  the  side,  he  should  show  length  of 
stride  and  enough  height  of  action  to  clear  the  ground  safely  at  each 
step.  High  knee  action  is  not  essential;  in  fact,  carriage  horse  action 
in  a  draft  horse  means  useless  expenditure  of  energy.  However,  there 
should  be  a  strong,  free  movement  of  knees  and  hocks,  without  dragging 
or  stiffness.  The  walk  is  the  real  gait  of  the  draft  horse,  and  an  active, 
snappy,  springy  walk,  with  trueness  and  length  of  stride,  is  the  prime 
essential  so  far  as  action  is  concerned.  However,  the  trot  often  magni- 
fies defects  in  gait  so  that  they  are  more  easily  seen,  and  in  show  and 
sale  rings  drafters  are  shown  at  both  gaits.  The  stride  in  the  trot 
should  be  long,  true,  springy,  steady,  businesslike,  and  moderately 
high.  Horsemen  like  a  bold  way  of  going  that  indicates  willingness 
and  courage  in  the  horse. 

In  action,  the  hocks  should  pass  close  together,  so  close  in  fact 
that  they  nearly  brush  each  other.  Some  horses  go  so  wide  behind 
that  a  wheelbarrow  could  be  put  between  the  hind  legs  and  scarcely 
touch  them.  Any  tendency  to  spraddle  behind  is  one  of  the  greatest, 
if  not  the  greatest,  defect  which  the  drafter  can  exhibit,  so  far  as  action 
is  concerned.    ■ 

The  study  of  action  is  one  requiring  close  attention.  The  observer 
must  take  into  consideration  every  movement  of  the  horse.  Attention 
must  be  given  not  only  to  the  movement  of  the  feet  and  legs,  but  also 
to  the  carriage  of  the  head  and  neck  and  the  entire  body.     The  head 


444  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

should  be  carried  well  up,  giving  a  stylish  appearance  and  a  good  out- 
look, and  the  top  of  the  horse  should  be  carried  level  and  true,  with- 
out any  rolling  or  wobbling  motion  from  side  to  side,  and  without  any 
indication  of  lameness.  The  front  and  hindquarters  should  act  in 
unison,  and  the  legs  should  be  kept  well  under  the  body  as  the  horse 
travels,  showing  no  tendency  to  drag  the  hind  legs,  and  especially  the 
hocks,  out  behind  the  body.  When  kept  up  underneath  as  they  should 
be,  and  when  all  the  motions  of  the  horse  are  in  unison,  we  say  that  he 
moves  in  a  collected  manner.  As  before  stated,  perfection  in  action 
can  result  only  when  there  is  a  combination  of  proper  conformation 
and  strength,  and  a  willing  disposition. 

Common  defects  in  the  action  of  draft  horses  are:  (1)  going  wide 
at  the  hocks,  (2)  swinging  the  fore  legs  outward,  called  "paddling," 
(3)  swinging  in,  (4)  striking  supporting  leg  with  foot  of  striding  leg, 
called  "interfering,"  (5)  twisting  striding  leg  around  in  front  of  support- 
ing leg,  called  "winding,"  "plaiting,"  or  "rope  walking,"  (6)  short, 
stubby  stride,  (7)  low,  skimming  action,  called  "daisy  cutting,"  (8) 
unsteadiness  of  gait,  (9)  striking  sole  or  heels  of  fore  foot  with  toe  of 
hind  foot,  called  "forging,"  (10)  excessive  lateral  shoulder  motion, 
called  "rolling,"  (11)  lack  of  energy  or  snap,  and  (12)  lameness. 

On  the  matter  of  type.— To  present  the  best  appearance,  the 
drafter  should  not  be  over-drafty  in  type;  that  is,  shortness  of  leg  and 
compactness  and  width  of  body  should  not  be  carried  to  the  extreme. 
A  certain  degree  of  length  of  leg,  length  of  neck,  and  length  of  under- 
line is  necessary,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  looks,  but  also  because  it 
actually  makes  the  horse  more  useful.  He  takes  a  longer  step,  and 
will  do  more  work  in  a  day  than  the  extremely  pudgy  type  of  horse. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  certainly  do  not  want  a  horse  that  is  all  length 
and  style.  We  must  aim  at  the  middle  ground,  selecting  for  as  much 
style  as  may  be  had  without  sacrifice  of  any  of  those  qualities  which 
make  the  draft  horse  useful  for  his  work. 

Finish. — The  term  "finish"  refers  to  fatness  and  to  the  condition 
of  the  coat.  The  horse  market  discriminates  in  price  to  a  considerable 
degree  between  the  fat  drafter  and  the  thin  one,  and  it  is  surprising 
what  an  improvement  is  made  in  some  horses  by  the  addition  of  fat. 
Fatness  adds  to  the  weight,  improves  the  form  and  spirit,  and  provides 
the  necessary  reserve  store  of  energy  to  carry  the  horse  through  the 
first  few  weeks  in  the  city  during  adjustment  to  city  sights,  sounds, 
loads,  pavements,  stables,  and  other  new  conditions.  Although  fat 
is  important  in  the  horse  for  sale  or  show,  the  judge  must  learn  to 
distinguish  between  fat  and  muscle,  and  must  not  be  deceived  as  to 
size  of  middle,  spring  or  rib,  or  length  of  back  and  croup.  The  coat 
should  be  well  groomed,  so  as  to  give  the  animal  a  sleek  appearance. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


445 


Color. — It  is  commonly  said  that  a  good  horse  cannot  have  a  bad 
color.  By  this  is  meant  that  color  is  disregarded  if  the  horse  suits 
otherwise.  Some  colors,  however,  are  very  generally  disliked,  and  still 
other  colors  are  not  liked  by  some  persons.     For  instance,  duns,  flea- 


>=  '-:^ 


Fig.  168. — Before  and  after  fattening.  A  gelding  fattened  by  B.  E.  Car- 
michael  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station.  Fattening  shortened  the  hi  ck.  fil'ed  out 
the  coupling,  smoothed  the  hips,  lengthened  and  levelled  the  croup,  rounded  out  the 
middle,  gave  crest  to  the  neck,  transformed  his  angular  lines  into  pleasing  curves, 
and  changed  his  worried  expression  of  eye  and  ear  to  one  of  contentment,  alertness, 
and  spirit.     The  feet  and  legs,  however,  are  not  improved  during  the  fattening  period. 

It  might  be  assumed  from  these  pictures  that  fat  will  transform  the  head,  neck, 
and  entire  top  of  a  horse  from  inferior  to  excellent.  However,  when  fat  this  gelding 
does  not  have  the  big  middle  which  a  fat  horse  should  have,  neither  does  he  show 
just  the  right  lines  and  proportions.  It  is  difficult  to  recognize  the  merits  of  a  thin 
animal,  and  it  is  almost  as  difficult  to  see  the  faults  of  a  fat  one.  The  above  pictures 
strikingly  illustrate  these  facts. 


446  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

bitten  grays,  white  horses,  very  light  grays,  and  spotted  horses  are 
universally  discounted,  either  because  they  are  hard  to  groom,  hard 
to  match,  or  because  the  color  is  unsightly.  Dark  colors,  such  as  dark 
or  steel  gray,  dark  dappled  gray,  dark  bay,  dark  brown,  dark  chestnut, 
dark  roan,  and  black,  are  given  preference.  Dark  dappled  grays  are 
well  liked  by  buyers,  and  some  firms  will  accept  no  other  color  because 
the  flash  gray  color  attracts  attention  to  their  turnouts.  It  is  not 
uncommon  for  business  houses  to  adopt  some  color  as  a  sort  of  trade- 
mark, on  account  of  the  advertising  value.  However,  color  is  of  less 
importance  in  draft  horses  than  in  any  other  type.  This  is  true  be- 
cause the  drafter  is  a  business  horse,  whereas  other  types  are  valued 
mostly  for  pleasure  purposes. 

Weight  for  age. — Draft  horses  that  are  properly  fed  and  cared  for 
usually  reach  at  least  50  per  cent  of  their  matured  weight  at  12  months 
of  age;  75  per  cent  at  24  months;  85  per  cent  at  36  months;  95  per  cent 
at  48  months;  and  100  per  cent  at  60  months.  On  this  basis  the  horse 
that  is  to  weigh  a  ton  at  maturity  should  weigh  not  less  than  1,000 
pounds  at  12  months,  1,500  pounds  at  24  months,  1,700  pounds  at  36 
months,  1,900  pounds  at  48  months,  and  2,000  pounds  at  60  months. 
These  are  general  averages.  Variations  will  occur  depending  on  feed, 
care,  breed,  sex,  and  individual.  Belgians  and  Percherons  mature 
somewhat  earlier  than  Shires  and  Clydesdales.  Mares  and  geldings 
mature  quicker  than  stallions,  but  do  not  as  a  rule  make  as  heavy 
weights  at  maturity.  Some  highly-fed  colts  and  fillies  make  the 
weights  mentioned  at  12  and  24  months  and  then  stop  growing  so  soon 
that  they  fall  considerably  below  a  ton  at  maturity.  This  is  especially 
true  of  yearlings  and  two-year-olds  that  have  a  compact,  low-set  form 
and  finished  appearance  like  a  mature  horse,  instead  of  the  growthy, 
rugged  appearance  characteristic  of  youngsters  that  ultimately  reach 
real  draft  horse  size  and  weight. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

THE  CARRIAGE  OR  HEAVY-HARNESS  HORSE 

The  carriage  horse  is  also  called  the  "heavy-harness"  horse  be- 
cause he  wears  heavy  leather  in  contrast  to  the  harness  worn  by  the 
roadster.  The  modern  carriage  horse  is  almost  exclusively  a  pleasure 
horse.  He  is  put  before  various  kinds  of  pleasure  vehicles  ranging 
from  the  light  runabout  to  the  heavy  coach,  and  it  is  therefore  apparent 
that  there  should  be  a  wide  range  in  the  size  and  weight  of  carriage 


7Mr^ 


Fig.  ibJ.  Cciir.agu  ui  iitci.j^-iiaii.to^  ^.»  pt-  liucvuty  ii.a.r,  i^Liccu  ul'  Dia- 
monds, imported  and  owned  by  the  Truman  Pioneer  Stud  Farm,  Bushnell,  111. 

horses  in  order  to  meet  the  widely  varying  demands  of  the  various 
vehicles  and  uses  to  which  this  horse  is  put.  In  other  respects,  all 
carriage  horses  are  very  nearly  alike. 

The  value  of  the  carriage  horse  is  determined  by  (1)  beauty  of 
conformation,  (2)  action,  (3)  manners,  (4)  temperament,  (5)  color, 
and  (6)  endurance  and  durability. 

1.  Beauty  of  conformation. — The  conformation  of  the  carriage 
horse  must  show  beauty,  style,  symmetry,  and  finish.     Being  a  pleas- 

447 


448 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


ure  horse,  it  is  the  abihty  not  only  to  do  certain  work  which  determines 
value,  but  to  do  this  work  gracefully,  and  to  present,  while  standing 
or  in  action,  a  picture  of  pleasing  appearance. 

2.  Action. — Here  again,  beauty  is  the  thing  sought  at  the  expense 
of  other  qualities.  The  carriage  horse  must  not  only  go  level,  true, 
and  collected,  but  he  must  go  very  high — the  higher  the  better.     With 


Fig.  170. — The  heavy-harness  type  in  action.  Hackney  pony,  Irvington 
Model,  bred  and  owned  by  W.  D.  Henry,  Sewickley,  Pa. 

this  end  in  view,  he  is  bred,  fed,  shod,  trained,  bitted,  and  driven  with 
a  view  to  securing  as  much  height  of  action  as  possible — not  because 
it  makes  him  more  useful  for  his  work,  but  because  it  makes  him  more 
pleasing  to  look  upon. 

3.  Manners. — If  the  horse  fails  to  respond  to  commands,  pos- 
sesses a  strong  will  that  rebels  at  these  commands,  or  fails  to  act 
quickly,  his  lack  of  manners  may  result  disastrously  to  the  occupants 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  449 

of  the  carriage.  Bad  behavior  while  standing  or  in  action  also  lessens 
the  attractiveness  of  appearance.  He  must  be  so  thoroughly  trained 
and  familiar  with  the  commands  of  his  driver  that  the  execution  of 
whatever  is  asked  will  be  done  involuntarily,  unhesitatingly,  and  in- 
stantly. Every  command  of  word,  whip,  or  rein  must  be  received 
intelligently,  and  intelligently  acted  upon  by  the  horse. 

4.  Temperament. — The  sanguine  or  nervous  temperament  is  the 
one  desired  in  carriage  horses,  for  without  it  we  cannot  expect  that 
degree  of  action  which  is  required,  nor  that  quickness  of  response  to 
commands  which  is  essential. 

5.  Color. — The  dark  solid  colors  are  preferred,  as  being  in  proper 
accord  with  the  elegant  vehicles  drawn  by  this  horse.  White  ankles 
are  often  favored,  because  a  horse  so  marked  has  his  action  emphasized 
and  easily  seen.  Grays,  roans,  and  light  colors  usually  are  heavily 
discounted  or  even  rejected,  and  in  horses  for  ladies'  use  even  the 
white  markings  are  discriminated  against.  True  elegance  and  good 
taste  are  wanted,  and  this  excludes  colors  that  are  flashy  and  calculated 
to  attract  undue  attention. 

6.  Endurance  and  durability. — The  carriage  horse  is  required  to 
make  only  short  trips  at  moderate  speed.  Endurance  is  not  so  essen- 
tial, therefore,  as  in  other  tj^Des.  However,  durability,  which  means 
wearing  quality,  is  of  great  importance.  Extrem.ely  high  action  makes 
necessary  the  best  of  feet  and  legs.  Durability  is  almost  entirely  de- 
pendent upon  the  amount  and  quality  of  bone,  and  the  structure  and 
texture  of  feet. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  TYPE 

General  appearance. — Compactness  and  fullness  of  form  are  re- 
quired in  order  that  the  horse  may  fill  his  harness  properly  and  be  in 
proper  keeping  with  the  vehicles  before  which  he  is  put.  He  must 
possess  great  smoothness  of  conformation,  with  all  his  lines  curving 
rather  than  angular.  He  must  appear  snugly  put  together.  Medium 
length  of  leg  is  required  to  give  proper  action  and  lend  him  style  and 
symmetry.  The  height  ranges  from  14  to  16-1  hands,  and  the  weight 
from  900  to  1,300  pounds.  The  greatest  demand  is  for  horses  standing 
from  15  to  16  hands.  Quality  is  indicated  in  bone,  joints,  hoofs,  hair, 
head,  and  smoothness  of  form.  As  the  subject  of  quality  has  been 
fully  discussed  in  connection  with  draft  horse  type,  lengthy  description 
is  unnecessary  here.  Quality  is  valuable  in  the  carriage  horse  because 
it  assures  durability,  and  because  refinement  and  smoothness  add 
beauty  to  the  horse. 

The  head  should  be  refined  and  well  proportioned  with  every  fea- 
ture sharply  defined.     The  forehead  should  be  broad,  and  the  eyes 


450  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

should  be  large  and  prominent.  Strong  jaws  and  a  wide  muzzle  are 
desired,  yet  the  muzzle  must  be  trim,  the  lips  thin,  and  the  entire  head 
free  from  any  appearance  of  coarseness.  The  nostrils  should  be  large. 
The  ears  should  be  fine,  placed  close  together  near  the  poll,  and  carried 
alert.  The  attachment  with  the  neck  must  be  clean  and  graceful. 
The  appearance  of  the  head  should  indicate  intelligence,  alertness,  and 
quality. 

Length  of  neck  is  very  essential.  It  should  be  gracefully  arched 
and  bear  considerable  muscle, — enough  muscle  to  lend  fullness  and 
strength,  but  not  so  much  as  to  give  an  appearance  of  heaviness  or 
coarseness.  The  upper  border  of  the  neck  should  be  fine  along  its 
entire  length.  The  neck  should  blend  nicely  with  the  shoulders. 
Without  a  high-class  front,  the  horse  cannot  qualify  as  a  heavy-harness 
horse  of  superior  type. 

Long,  snugly  laid  shoulders  that  have  a  decided  slope  and  are 
well  muscled  are  wanted.  The  withers  should  be  well  set  up  and 
should  show  refinement.  The  chest  should  be  moderately  wide  and 
very  deep.  The  breast  should  be  carried  out  prominently  and  be 
rather  muscular. 

The  middle  of  the  horse  should  be  round,  full  made,  short  on  top, 
and  long  below.  This  calls  for  long,  well-arched  ribs  and  good  depth 
of  flank.  The  back,  and  especially  the  loin,  should  be  thickly  muscled 
and  short,  giving  strength  and  a  smooth,  finished  appearance.  Depth 
of  flank  is  essential  to  a  good  appearance  and  good  feeding  qualities. 

The  hips  should  be  smooth.  Prominent  hips  detract  from  the 
smoothness  of  form  which  is  so  much  desired.  A  long,  level,  fairly 
broad,  well-muscled,  and  smoothly  turned  croup  is  the  most  attractive 
and  the  best  indication  of  strength.  The  tail  should  be  attached  high 
and  carried  out  from  the  quarters.  Carriage  horses  usually  have  the 
tail  docked  and  set.  Full,  muscular  development  of  thighs,  quarters, 
and  gaskins  gives  the  desired  fullness  of  form  and  necessary  strength. 

Legs.— Superior  quality  of  bone,  associated  with  substance,  should 
be  evident  in  the  cannons.  The  arm  should  be  very  muscular.  The 
forearm  should  be  muscular  and  long.  The  knee  must  be  wide  both 
ways,  deep,  and  clearly  defined.  The  hocks  should  be  wide,  deep, 
straight,  and  clean.  The  cannons,  both  front  and  rear,  as  viewed  from 
the  side,  should  be  broad  and  flat,  with  the  grooves  between  the  cannon 
bone  and  tendons  easily  seen  and  felt.  Straight,  strong  fetlock  joints 
are  essential.  The  front  pasterns  should  slope  at  an  angle  of  about 
45  degrees,  and  be  long  enough  to  give  elasticity  of  stride,  yet  show 
suflicient  substance  to  insure  strength.  Proper  position  of  the  legs  is 
of  greater  importance  in  this  type  than  in  draft  horses.  So  much  of 
the  value  of  the  horse  depends  upon  action,  and  so  much  of  action 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  451 

depends  upon  proper  position  of  the  legs  and  feet,  that  great  attention 
should  be  given  to  this  point.  The  legs  must  come  straight  down  and 
the  toes  point  straight  forward  to  insure  true  action. 

Feet. — The  size  of  the  foot  should  be  proportionate  to  the  size  of 
the  horse.  Roundness  and  size  of  hoof-head,  width  at  the  heels,  and 
height  at  both  heel  and  toe  are  important.  The  discussion  regarding 
the  sole,  bars,  frog,  denseness  of  horn,  etc.,  as  given  in  connection  with 
draft  horse  type,  applies  here  with  equal  force. 

Action. — The  requirements  of  action  in  the  carriage  horse  are: 
(1)  trueness,  (2)  height,  (3)  length  of  stride,  (4)  collection,  (5)  elastic- 
ity, (6)  boldness  and  power,  (7)  gracefulness  of  movement,  and  (8) 
moderate  speed.     The  walk  must  be  snappy,  quick,  and  businesslike 


Fig.  171. — The  carriage  horse  in  harness.  Compare  this  picture  with  Fig. 
174  and  note  the  difference  in  height  of  action,  type  of  vehicle,  and  weight  of  harness. 
This  is  the  noted  Hackney  mare  Bountiful,  owned  by  Judge  W.  H.  Moore  of  Chicago. 

to  a  marked  degree.  But  it  is  at  the  trot  that  action  is  wholly  revealed. 
The  flight  of  each  foot  must  be  straight  and  true.  The  fore  foot  should 
be  carried  forward  and  high  up,  as  if  following  the  rim  of  a  rolling 
wheel,  and  the  stride  should  be  long.  The  foot  meets  the  ground 
easily  and  without  apparent  jar,  in  fact  the  step  appears  elastic,  and 
the  meeting  with  the  ground  seems  to  send  the  foot  on  again  as  though 
it  were  made  of  rubber.  Every  movement  must  show  grace  and  style, 
and  the  whole  attitude  of  the  horse  should  be  one  of  combined  courage 
and  power. 


452  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Proper  folding  of  the  knee  meets  only  half  of  the  requirement. 
Associated  with  this,  there  should  be  a  decided  flexing  of  the  hock. 
The  hind  foot  will  leave  the  ground  with  snap  and  free  movement  of 
pastern,  and  the  hock  will  be  carried,  not  backward,  but  upward  to- 
ward the  dock,  to  accomplish  which  the  hock  must  be  flexed  very 
decidedly. 

Action  is  so  valuable  in  the  heavy-harness  horse  that  breeders  and 
dealers  often  resort  to  artificial  means  to  secure  it  in  horses  which  are 
deficient  in  their  movement.  Heavy  shoes  produce  height  of  action. 
The  toe  is  allowed  to  grow  out  long  which  also  adds  weight  to  the  foot 
and  requires  more  effort  on  the  part  of  the  horse  in  breaking  over  as 


^         >w 


Fig.  172. — Sensational    action.     Little    Ruby,    a    champion    Hackney    pony 
stallion  owned  in  England. 

he  takes  a  stride,  so  that  when  he  does  break  over  the  extra  force  tends 
to  carry  the  foot  higher  and  farther  away.  No  matter  how  natural  it 
may  be  for  a  horse  to  go  high,  he  still  requires  proper  shoeing,  bitting, 
training,  and  driving,  in  order  that  his  inherent  ability  may  be  de- 
veloped. Even  after  the  horse  is  "made,"  as  the  saying  goes,  if  he  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  an  inexperienced  reinsman,  unskilled  in  driving 
heavy-harness  horses,  the  result  will  be  a  failure.  The  trained 
carriage  horse  responds  superbly  under  the  guidance  of  the  master 
reinsman.  Given  proper  aids  from  word,  whip,  and  rein,  the  horse  in- 
stinctively responds  with  the  best  performance  of  which  he  is  capable. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
THE  ROADSTER  OR  LIGHT-HARNESS  HORSE 

The  roadster  or  light-harness  horse  is  distinctly  an  American  type, 
or  strictly  speaking,  it  is  a  breed — the  American  Trotter  or  Standard- 
bred.  The  light-harness  horse  is  a  pleasure  horse  exclusively;  his 
domain  includes  the  regular  race  tracks,  where  he  is  used  for  profes- 
sional racing,  and  also  the  city  speedways  and  snowpaths  and  country 
roadways,  where  amateur  racing  and  road  driving  are  indulged  in  by 
men  who  admire  the  trotting  horse  and  seek  recreation  in  the  open  air. 
Roadsters  or  "gentlemen's  drivers"  also  form  classes  at  our  horse 
shows. 

This  type  is  styled  "light-harness  type"  because,  on  both  road  and 
track,  the  horse  works  in  light-weight  harness  that  is  quite  in  contrast 
to  the  heavy  leather  worn  by  the  heavy-harness  horse.  The  harness 
is  light  because  the  vehicles  to  which  this  horse  is  put  are  very  light  in 
weight.  In  professional  racing  the  bike  sulky  is  used,  which  weighs 
from  27  to  35  pounds;  in  matinee  racing  the  vehicle  used  is  a  light 
speed  wagon  having  four  wheels  but  of  the  same  general  construction 
as  the  sulky,  and  weighing  only  65  to  68  pounds.  On  the  road  the 
hitch  is  to  a  light  wagon  weighing  about  175  pounds,  which  may  have 
a  top  much  like  the  common  piano-box  buggy.  For  snow  racing  a 
specially  constructed  speed  sleigh  is  used,  weighing  a  little  less  than 
100  pounds. 

The  value  of  the  light-harness  horse  is  based  upon  (1)  speed,  (2) 
stamina  or  endurance,  (3)  durability,  (4)  temperament,  and  (5)  beauty 
of  conformation. 

1.  Speed. — Whether  in  use  on  or  off  the  track,  the  light-harness 
horse  is  prized  very  largely  for  his  speed.  For  racing  purposes  he  is 
required  to  show  2 :30  speed  at  the  trot,  or  2 :25  at  the  pace,  before  he 
is  considered  a  light-harness  horse  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  and 
for  road  use  he  should  be  able  to  do  at  least  ten  miles  within  an  hour. 
The  ability  to  "get  there"  is  the  thing  for  which  this  horse  is  bred  and 
trained.  The  world's  trotting  record  is  now  1:56^  (which  means  1 
minute  and  56 ^^  seconds  for  the  mile)  and  is  held  by  Peter  Manning, 
a  gelding.  The  world's  pacing  record  is  1:553^,  held  by  the  stallion 
Dan  Patch.  The  fastest  trotting  and  pacing  records  and  the  years 
when  they  were  established  are  as  follows:^ 


iThe  Horse  Review,  Dec.  13,  1922,  p.  1214. 
453 


454  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Fastest  trotting  and  pacing  records 

Trotting  records  Pacing  records 

1  mile Peter  Manning  (1922).  ..   1:56 s^  Dan  Patch  (1905) 1:55^ 

2  miles The  Harvester  (1910) .  .  .   4:15^  Dan  Patch  (1903) 4:17 

3  miles Nightingale  (1893) 6:55M  Elastic  Pointer  (1909) 7:31^ 

4  miles Senator  L.  (1894) 10:12  Joe  Jefferson  (1891) 10:10 

Smiles Zambra  (1902) 12:24  Lady  St.  Clair  (1874) 12:54^ 

10  miles Pascal  (1893) 26:15  

Stallion Lee  Axworthy  (1916). . .  .   1:58^  Dan  Patch  (1905) 1:55 Ji 

„  XT  jj     /1Qoo^  1.KC1/  /Miss  Harris  M.  (1917) 1:58J4 

Mare Nedda  (1922) 1:58K  (Margaret  Dillon  (1922). .  . .   1:58^ 

Gelding Peter  Manning  (1922).  . .   1:56%  Frank  Bogash  Jr.  (1914). .  .   1:59 J^ 

Yearling Airdale  (1912) 2:15%  Frank  Perry  (1911) 2:15 

2-year-old.  .  .The  Real  Lady  (1916). .  .  2:04%  Direct  the  Work  (1917). . . .   2:06H 

3-year-old .  .  . Sister  Bertha  (1920) 2:02%  Anna  Bradford  (1914) 2:00% 

4-year-old.  .  . Arion  Guy  (1921) 1:59^  William  (1914) 2:00 

5-year-old.  .  .Peter  Manning  (1921).  . .   1:57%  William  (1915) 1:58^ 

Under  saddle.Country  Jay  (1909) 2:08%  George  Gano  (1915) 2:10% 

Team Uhlan  and  Lewis  Forrest  Minor  Heir  and  George 

(1912) 2:03%  Gano  (1912) 2:02 

2.  Stamina  or  endurance.— Most  racing,  both  amateur  and  pro- 
fessional, is  at  mile  heats  over  half-mile  or  mile  tracks.  Some  races 
are  two  in  three,  and  some  three  in  five,  heats.  Not  until  some  horse 
has  succeeded  in  winning  the  necessary  two  or  three  heats  is  the  race 
decided.  For  this  reason,  some  races  extend  into  very  gruelling  con- 
tests. Some  horses  show  a  wonderful  burst  of  speed  for  a  quarter  of 
a  mile  or  so,  and  then  quit.  These  horses  are  said  to  "lack  bottom," 
by  which  is  meant  a  lack  of  stamina  or  endurance.  Stamina  means 
ability  to  go  a  mile  at  speed,  and  to  repeat  the  mile,  two,  three,  or  more 
times,  with  intermissions  of  not  less  than  25  minutes.  To  accomplish 
this  requires  heart  and  lungs  of  the  first  order,  together  with  a  well- 
developed  muscular  system.  On  the  speedway  and  snowpath  there  is 
a  great  deal  of  brush  racing,  that  is,  racing  over  short  distances  of  vary- 
ing lengths,  depending  on  the  wishes  of  the  drivers  and  the  ease  or 
difficulty  in  passing  opponents.  This  is  usually  not  so  severe  as  a 
regular  racing  program,  provided  the  horse  has  been  properly  condi- 
tioned and  trained. 

3.  Durability. — It  is  readily  apparent  that  the  work  required  of 
the  light-harness  horse  is  of  such  a  nature  as  demands  the  best  of  feet 
and  legs.  This  t3T)e  of  horse  has  a  decided  advantage  over  the  carriage 
horse  and  drafter,  in  that  he  works  on  a  much  more  yielding  footing, 
yet  the  high  rate  of  speed  puts  his  feet  and  legs  to  a  very  severe  test, 
and  many  horses  with  speed  and  stamina  have  their  usefulness  and 
value  greatly  lessened  because  of  failure  to  keep  sound  when  called 
upon  to  go  through  a  strenuous  racing  campaign  or  do  a  large  amount 
of  work  on  the  road. 

4.  The  temperament  must  be  decidedly  sanguine,  which  gives 
courage,  willingness,  and  promptness,  with  no  sluggishness. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


455 


5.  Beauty  of  conformation  is  a  comparatively  small  factor  in 
determining  the  value  of  light-harness  horses  for  racing  purposes. 
Some  breeders  have  placed  considerable  emphasis  on  the  matter  of 
looks  and  attractiveness,  but  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  beauty  in 
the  light-harness  horse,  while  appreciated  whenever  it  occurs,  has  not 
been  fully  emphasized  by  breeders,  because  they  have  been  catering  to 
the  demand  of  the  race  track,  and  that  demand  is  for  speed  above 
everything  else.  In  selecting  roadsters  strictly  for  road  driving,  how- 
ever, speed  is  not  so  important  as  endurance  and  the  ability  to  make  a 


Fig.  173.— Roadster  or  light-harness  type.  AzoflF,  2,  2:14^;  son  of  Peter  the 
Great  2:07i^  and  Dolly  Worthy  2:27\i,  by  Axworthy  2:15^.  Owned  by  John  R. 
Thompson,  Libertyyille,  111.  Azoflf  is  the  sire  of  the  present  world's  champion 
trotter,  Peter  Manning  1:56 ?4. 


long  drive  in  creditable  time,  and  for  this  work  a  horse  of  attractive, 
finished  appearance  is  highly  desirable.  A  big,  strong,  well-made 
horse,  with  quality,  a  well-carried  head  and  tail,  light  mouth,  good 
manners,  excellent  feet  and  legs,  and  a  long  stride,  is  the  sort  best  suited 
for  road  driving.  In  order  to  win  prizes  in  the  larger  horse  shows, 
attractive  form  and  action,  style,  and  beauty,  combined  with  speed, 
are  highly  essential,  and  a  height  above  15-2  is  preferred.     But  for 


456  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

racing  purposes  the  almost  exclusive  requirements  are  speed,  stamina, 
and  durability. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  TYPE 

General  appearance. — There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  size 
and  general  appearance  of  the  light-harness  horse.  The  demand  for 
speed  has  been  so  great  that  breeders  have  been  obliged  to  center  their 
attention  upon  this  one  factor  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other  desirable 
features,  including  uniformity  of  type.  However,  in  breeding  for  speed 
alone,  certain  other  characters  are  bound  to  be  impressed  also.  Speed 
in  the  light-harness  horse  is  associated  or  correlated  with  refinement, 
endurance,  and  courage.  Size,  symmetry,  and  beauty  are  not  corre- 
lated with  speed  except  in  the  most  general  way.  The  light-harness 
horse  varies  in  weight  from  800  to  1,250  pounds,  and  in  height  from 
14-2  to  16-1.  Weights  from  950  to  1,150  pounds  and  heights  from  15 
to  16  hands  are  most  common.  This  type  is  rather  upstanding,  leggy, 
long,  deep,  narrow,  and  angular.  Quality  is  shown  by  clean,  smooth, 
dense  bone;  sharply  defined  tendons  and  joints;  a  chiseled,  blooded- 
looking  head;  fine  skin  and  hair;  fine-haired  mane  and  tail;  and  hoofs 
of  smooth,  dense  horn. 

The  head  should  be  refined  and  well  proportioned,  with  a  straight 
face  line,  a  fine  muzzle,  large  nostrils,  and  thin,  trim  lips.  The  eyes 
should  be  large,  prominent,  clear,  and  bright.  The  forehead  should  be 
high,  broad,  and  full.  The  ears  should  be  fine,  pointed,  set  close,  and 
carried  alert. 

A  long,  lean  neck,  with  a  fine  throttle,  is  desired.  Ewe  necks  are 
common.     A  straight  neck,  or  one  with  slight  arch,  is  preferable. 

Long,  smooth,  sloping  shoulders,  fitted  close  to  the  ribs,  and  high, 
refined  withers  are  essential. 

The  middle  of  the  light-harness  horse  is  characterized  by  a  deep 
rib  without  much  arch.  The  chest  gets  its  capacity  from  depth,  rather 
than  from  width.  A  straight,  medium-short,  well-muscled  back  and 
loin  are  essential.  The  underline  is  long,  and  the  flanks  should  be  well 
let  down. 

The  hips  should  be  of  medium  width.  This  type  does  not  present 
as  smooth  a  hip  as  the  carriage  horse.  A  little  prominence  of  hip  is 
not  very  objectionable,  but  if  this  is  so  pronounced  as  to  give  a  rough 
appearance  it  is  undesirable. 

A  long,  level,  muscular  croup  of  medium  width  is  best  suited  to 
this  type.  Defective  croups  are  common.  The  tail  should  be  attached 
high  and  well  carried. 

Long,  muscular  thighs  give  speed.  Well-muscled  quarters  are 
necessary  for  strength. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  457 

Legs. — Length  of  leg  is  necessary  for  speed,  yet  there  should  be 
proper  proportion  between  length  of  leg  and  size  of  horse.  A  shallow 
body  set  up  high  on  very  long  legs  is  not  a  good  type.  The  arm  should 
be  muscular,  and  carried  well  forward,  while  the  forearm  should  be 
long  and  muscular,  with  a  nice  tapering  to  the  knee.  This  provides 
room  for  the  long  muscles  associated  with  speed.  The  knees  must  be 
clean,  bony,  straight,  broad,  deep,  and  strongly  supported.  The 
cannons  should  be  broad,  with  large,  clean  tendons  set  well  back  from 
the  bone.  Straight,  wide  fetlock  joints  and  strong,  sloping  pasterns 
of  good  length  are  very  necessary.  The  fore  leg  must  be  straight,  and 
the  toe  should  point  directly  forward,  to  insure  trueness  of  action. 
A  long,  muscular  gaskin  is  an  important  requirement.     This  brings 


Fig.  174. ^The  light-harness  horse  in  action.  The  Harvester  2:01,  former 
champion  trotting  stallion,  driven  by  Ed  Geers.  Owned  by  C.  K.  G.  Billings  of  New 
York. 

the  hocks  far  below  the  point  of  the  buttock,  which  is  essential  in 
securing  speed.  Clean  hocks  that  are  wide,  deep,  straight,  with  promi- 
nent point,  and  well  supported  below  are  very  necessary.  The  hind 
legs  must  be  set  straight,  with  the  toes  pointing  straight  ahead. 
Sickle-shaped  hind  legs  are  rather  too  common. 

Feet. — The  best  of  feet  are  necessary.  Although  this  type  is 
usually  afforded  an  easy  footing,  nevertheless  the  tremendous  concus- 
sion puts  the  feet  to  severe  strain  when  the  horse  travels  at  speed.  At 
high  speed,  a  stride  of  19  or  20  feet  is  attained.  Imagine  the  force  of 
the  concussion  when  a  1,000-pound  horse  strides  20  feet  in  less  than 
half  a  second,  as  is  the  case  when  the  horse  is  trotting  at  a  two-minute 


458  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

gait.  The  feet  should  be  well-developed,  uniform  in  size,  point  straight 
forward,  and  slope  at  the  same  angle  as  the  pastern.  The  horn  of  the 
hoof  should  be  dense  and  smooth,  the  sole  should  be  concave,  the  bars 
strong,  the  frog  large  and  elastic,  and  the  heel  wide  and  open. 

Gait. — Both  pacers  and  trotters  are  found  among  light-harness 
horses.  These  gaits  differ  from  each  other  in  that  the  pace  is  a  lateral 
motion  in  which  the  fore  and  hind  leg  of  the  same  side  act  together, 
while  the  trotter  moves  diagonally.  A  change  of  a  few  ounces  in  the 
weight  of  a  shoe  often  transforms  the  gait.  Many  horses  hold  records 
at  both  gaits.  The  pacing  gait  is  about  two  seconds  faster  for  the 
mile  than  the  trot,  but  it  is  not  so  popular  with  horsemen  as  the  trotting 
gait,  especially  for  road  driving.  With  the  pace  there  is  often  asso- 
ciated a  decided  rolling  of  the  body,  which  is  disliked,  the  pull  on  the 
vehicle  is  jerky,  and  the  pacer  does  not  work  well  in  the  mud  or 
where  the  going  is  heavy.  The  natural  pacer  also  frequently  possesses 
a  steep  croup,  short  underline,  and  sickle-shaped  hind  leg. 

Action. — The  walk  should  be  true,  quick,  elastic,  and  regular.  The 
trot,  in  order  to  be  fast  without  undue  tiring  of  the  horse,  must  be 
straight  and  true,  with  regular,  even,  long  stride.  Height  of  action  is 
of  little  importance;  in  fact,  the  less  knee  and  hock  action  the  better. 
It  is  only  important  that  the  foot  clear  the  ground,  accompanied  by 
enough  action  of  knee  and  hock  to  secure  length  of  stride.  There 
should  be  no  hitching  or  unsteadiness  of  gait,  and  no  great  tendency 
to  break  when  going  at  speed.  The  action  should  be  what  is  sometimes 
termed  "frictionless,"  giving  one  the  impression  of  a  perfect  mechanism 
that  can  travel  at  greatest  speed  with  no  waste  of  energy.  It  is  appar- 
ent that  much  of  the  success  of  the  light-harness  horse  depends  upon 
good  action,  and  good  action,  in  turn,  is  dependent  largely  upon  proper 
position  of  the  legs.  Defects  in  conformation  result  in  knee  knocking, 
speedy  cutting,  over-reaching,  and  other  faults  of  action.  ^ 

Common  defects  in  the  action  of  light-harness  horses  are  (1) 
swinging  the  fore  feet  inward,  instead  of  carrying  them  straight  away, 

(2)  a  stride  in  which  extension  is  more  marked  than  flexion,  and  in 
which  the  heel  of  the  foot  strikes  the  ground  first,  called  "pointing," 

(3)  pause  in  flight  of  foot  before  foot  reaches  ground,  called  "dwelling," 

(4)  striking  sole  or  heels  of  fore  foot  with  toe  of  hind  foot,  called 
"forging,"  (5)  striking  supporting  leg  with  foot  of  striding  leg,  called 
"interfering,"  (6)  hitting  front  of  hind  foot,  above  or  at  line  of  hair, 
against  toe  or  fore  foot  as  it  breaks  over,  called  "scalping,"  (7)  the 
trotter  at  speed  often  goes  rather  wide  behind,  and  he  sometimes 
strikes  his  hind  leg,  above  the  scalping  mark,  against  the  outside  of  the 


I  Faulty  shoeing  also  frequently  causes  faulty  action.     Correct  shoeing  fre- 
quently overcomes  or  minimizes  natural  faults  in  action. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  459 

breaking  over  fore  foot,  called  "speedy  cutting,"  and  (8)  "cross  firing," 
a  fault  in  pacers  corresponding  to  forging  in  trotters. 

The  condition  of  the  light-harness  horse  is  in  marked  contrast  to 
the  types  previously  described.  When  in  desirable  racing  condition 
there  seems  to  be  a  total  absence  of  fat  from  the  muscles.  A  clean-cut, 
sinewy  appearance  indicates  proper  racing  trim.  For  hard  use  on  the 
road  a  fat  horse  is  almost  equally  objectionable.  The  fat  horse  is  soft, 
sweats  easily,  and  tires  quickly.  However,  proper  condition  is  not 
secured  by  giving  short  rations.  The  roadster  should  be  well  fed,  and 
kept  in  proper  condition  by  plenty  of  exercise. 

Color. — A  study  of  the  American  Trotting  Register,  which  is  the 
stud  book  in  which  Standardbred  horses  are  recorded,  indicates  that 
the  colors  per  thousand  horses  are  as  follows:  605  bays,  140  chestnuts, 
130  browns,  85  blacks,  25  grays,  13  roans,  and  2  duns.  The  first  four 
colors — bay,  chestnut,  brown,  and  black — are  liked  best.  Grays,  roans, 
and  duns  are  not  so  popular. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

THE  SADDLE  HORSE 

Any  horse  used  for  riding  might  be  called  a  "saddle  horse."  But 
there  is  a  certain  type  of  horse  best  suited  to  carrying  a  man  in  safety 
and  comfort,  and  this  is  the  type  to  bear  in  mind  when  thinking  of 
saddle  horses.  The  horse  of  all  pioneer  peoples  is  the  saddler.  In 
new  countries,  before  the  opening  of  roads,  the  saddle  horse  is  of  greatest 


Fk;.  17.1.  J'UL-i^Miifd  saddle  horse.  The  noted  prize-winning  sUillion,  Ken- 
tucky's Choice,  owned  by  Mrs.  R.  Tasker  Lowndes,  Danville,  Ky. 

usefulness.  When  the  country  becomes  settled  and  roadways  are 
opened  and  improved,  other  types  of  horses  quickly  appear,  and  there 
is  less  and  less  real  necessity  for  the  saddle  horse;  but  the  saddler  never 
disappears  from  any  community  because  he  is  highly  prized  as  a  horse 
for  pleasure  and  recreation. 

When  roads  were  being  opened  in  the  states  along  the  eastern 
seaboard  and  the  roadster  began  to  gain  popularity,  Kentucky,  Mis- 
souri, and  the  West  were  yet  a  country  of  bridle  paths,  and  there  the 
saddle  horse  was  held  in  high  esteem.     In  1818  a  traveller  through  the 

460 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  461 

Kentucky  blue-grass  region  reported  that  "the  horse,  'noble  and  gener- 
ous' is  the  favorite  animal  of  the  Kentuckian,  by  whom  he  is  pampered 
with  unceasing  attention.  Every  person  of  wealth  has  from  ten  to 
thirty,  of  good  size  and  condition,  upon  which  he  lavishes  his  corn  with 
a  wasteful  profusion."  Besides  Kentucky  and  Missouri,  the  states  of 
Virginia  and  Tennessee  have  been  intimately  connected  with  saddle 
horse  development  in  America.  These  four  states  produce  many 
excellent  saddle  animals  annually. 

Today,  saddle  horses  are  used  in  a  business  way  by  the  cavalry  of 
the  United  States  Army  and  National  Guard,  by  the  mounted  police 
of  the  larger  cities,  by  cattle  drovers  in  rural  districts,  by  cattle  buyers 
and  salesmen  at  the  large  live-stock  markets,  by  ranchers  in  the  West, 
and  by  overseers  and  managers  of  large  plantations  and  farms  in  the 
South,  East,  and  Central  West.  However,  the  high  prices  for  saddle 
horses  are  paid  by  people  to  whom  the  saddler  is  a  pleasure  horse.  In 
city  parks  and  on  country  roads  are  to  be  seen  many  excellent  saddle 
horses  used  strictly  for  pleasure  and  recreation. 

All  good  saddle  horses  possess  a  general  type  which  we  may  call 
"saddle  type,"  but  the  uses  made  of  saddle  horses  are  so  varied  that 
several  varieties  or  sub-types  of  the  saddle  horse  exist,  each  possessing 
a  distinct  type  of  its  own.  The  most  important  of  these  sub-types  are 
(1)  the  five-gaited  saddler,  (2)  the  three-gaited  horse,  (3)  the  hunter, 
and  (4)  the  polo  pony.  All  of  these  are  pleasure  horses.  The  running 
horse  or  race  horse,  the  cavalry  horse,  and  the  western  cow  pony  are 
other  sub-types  adapted  to  certain  special  uses,  but  the  following  dis- 
cussion is  confined  to  the  four  first  mentioned.  A  brief  description  of 
the  cavalry  horse  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  dealing  with  market 
classes  of  horses. 

The  Five-Gaited  Saddle  Horse 

The  five-gaited  saddle  horse  is  also  known  as  the  American  Saddle 
Horse,  this  being  the  name  of  the  breed  which  supplies  practically  all 
horses  of  the  gaited  class.  To  classify  as  a  five-gaited  horse,  the 
saddler  must  have  at  least  five  gaits,  four  of  which  must  be  the  walk, 
trot,  canter,  and  rack.  In  addition  to  i'.iese  four,  the  horse  must  have 
one  or  more  of  three  slow  gaits — the  running  walk,  fox  trot,  and  slow 
pace.  The  gaited  saddler  is  the  horse  that  has  made  Kentucky  and 
Missouri  famous.  There  ho  is  looked  upon  with  great  admiration,  and 
bred  and  trained  with  great  care. 

General  appearance. — The  gaited  horse  wears  a  natural  mane  and 
tail,  in  contrast  to  the  other  types  of  saddle  horses.  The  breeders  of 
this  type  lay  stress  upon  loftiness  of  carriage,  airiness  of  movement, 
refinement,  intelligence,  docility  with  high  spirit  and  courage, — withal. 


462  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

great  beauty  in  every  detail  of  conformation,  without  any  sacrifice  of 
those  qualities  which  insure  durability  and  creditable  performance  of 
the  work  demanded  of  a  saddle  horse.  A  leading  Kentucky  breeder 
presents  the  points  of  the  typical  five-gaited  saddle  horse  in  the  follow- 
ing brief  paragraph :  ^ 

"The  typical  saddle  horse  does  not  differ  materially  from  other 
light  horses  in  conformation.  The  characteristics  peculiar  to  the  type 
are  a  long,  clean  neck,  sloping  pasterns  and  shoulders,  withers  moder- 
ately high  and  narrow,  a  short  and  compactly  coupled  back,  smoothly 
turned  quarters,  and  a  well-set,  high-carried  tail.  In  action  there 
should  be  promptness,  ease,  and  precision  in  going  from  gait  to  gait, 
and  abs6lute  straightness  and  evenness  in  each.  The  rack  should  be 
smooth,  swift,  and  without  side  motion  of  the  body  or  legs,  the  trot 
should  be  fast  and  without  offensive  flashiness,  the  canter  should  be 
slow  with  no  increasing  speed,  the  flat-footed  walk  should  be  springy 
and  reasonably  fast,  while  the  running  walk,  or  fox  trot,  should  be 
easy  and  comfortable  and  equal  to  about  five  miles  an  hour." 

Gaits. — In  a  wild  state  the  natural  gaits  of  the  horse  were  four  in 
number — the  walk,  trot,  pace,  and  gallop  or  run.  Under  domestica- 
tion these  gaits  have  been  variously  modified  and  additions  made  for 
saddle  purposes.  These  additions  and  modifications  are  largely  the 
result  of  the  selection  for  breeding  purposes  of  those  animals  most 
readily  acquiring  the  desired  gaits  when  trained  to  them.  The  gaits 
desired  in  the  five-gaited  type  of  saddle  horse  are  as  follows: 

Walk. — The  flat-footed  walk  should  be  springy,  regular,  and 
reasonably  fast. 

Trot.— This  is  a  diagonal  gait,  the  off  fore  foot  and  near  hind  foot 
striking  the  ground  together,  the  body  being  then  propelled  forward 
from  this  support  and  sustained  by  the  near  fore  foot  and  off  hind  foot. 
It  is  a  "two-beat"  gait.  The  trot  should  be  fast,  with  only  moderate 
height  of  action,  extreme  knee  action  being  undesirable.  Many  other- 
wise excellent  saddle  horses  cannot  trot  well,  "pointing"  and  coming 
down  on  their  heels,  instead  of  exhibiting  a  well-balanced  trot. 

The  canter  is  a  restrained  gallop.  It  is  slower  than  the  gallop  and 
easier  to  ride.  With  proper  training,  the  horse  easily  acquires  this 
gait.  It  should  be  slow,  with  no  increasing  speed.  The  canter  is  not 
considered  perfect  until  the  horse  can  perform  it  at  a  rate  no  faster 
than  a  fast  walk.  To  "canter  all  day  in  the  shade  of  an  apple  tree"  is 
a  saying  sometimes  used  to  describe  the  canter  of  a  highly  trained 
saddler  that  can  canter  very  slowly  and  in  a  small  circle.  A  well- 
trained  horse  will  change  lead  in  the  canter,  and  start  with  either  foot 
leading,  at  the  will  of  the  rider. 


»Bit  and  Spur,  Sept.,  1912,  p.  22. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


463 


The  rack  is  a  four-beat  gait,  each  foot  meeting  the  ground  singly, 
all  the  intervals  being  equal.  Hence  it  is  sometimes  called  "single 
foot."  This  gait  may  be  distinguished  by  the  ear  alone,  because  the 
foot-falls  are  rapid  enough  to  produce  a  characteristic  clatter.  The 
rack  is  taught  by  urging  the  horse  with  the  whip  or  spurs  and  restrain- 
ing by  the  curb.  This  breaks  up  the  movement  of  a  slow  gait,  and  the 
restraint  is  sufficient  to  prevent  a  free  trot  or  canter,  so  that  the  horse 
flies  into  a  rapid  four-beat  gait.  The  rack  is  easy  for  the  rider,  hard 
for  the  horse.     It  is  showy,  and  some  horses  can  perform  it  at  great 


Fig.  176. — The  saddle  horse  in  action.  Edna  May,  undefeated  five-gaited 
mare,  ridden  by  Mat  S.  Cohen,  Lexington,  Ky.  Owned  by  Mrs.  R.  Tasker  Lowndes, 
Danville,  Ky.  This  picture  shows  correct  degree  of  knee  and  hock  action  and  proper 
carriage  of  head  and  tail. 


speed.  This  gait  has  been  officially  named  the  "rack"  by  the  American 
Saddle  Horse  Breeders'  Association,  hence  the  name  "single  foot" 
should  not  be  used.  It  should  be  smooth,  swift,  and  without  side 
motion  of  the  body  or  legs. 

The  slow  pace,  sometimes  called  the  "stepping  pace,"  is  the  true 
pace  so  modified  that  the  impact  on  the  ground  of  the  two  feet  on  a 
side  is  broken,  the  hind  foot  touching  first,  thus  avoiding  the  rolling 
motion  of  the  true  pace.     The  slow  pace  is  a  comfortable  and  attrac- 


464 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


tive  gait.  Many  trainers  do  not  favor  it,  for  the  liorse  easily  falls  into 
the  habit  of  taking  the  true  pace  which  is  not  a  desirable  saddle  gait 
because  it  is  rough  and  uncomfortable.  The  true  pace  is  the  worst 
gait  a  saddle  horse  can  possess;  the  rider  cannot  rise  to  it  and  save 
himself  as  in  a  trot. 

The  fox  trot  is  a  slow,  short-striding  trot.  It  is  not  so  popular  as 
the  running  walk.  It  is  a  broken-time  gait  and  difficult  to  describe. 
Some  riders,  when  asked  to  exhibit  the  fox  trot,  simply  restrain  their 


h'lr,  ]:  .  The  three-gaited  saddle  type.  Connoisseur,  an  excellent  type  of 
walk,  trot,  canter  horse,  owned  by  William  Ritter,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

horses  to  as  slow  a  trot  as  possible,  seeking  to  pass  that  off  as  a  fox 
trot,  but  the  true  fox  trot  is  not  accompanied  by  restraint. 

The  running  walk  is  a  slow  gait,  as  are  also  the  slow  pace  and  fox 
trot.  The  running  walk  is  faster  than  a  flat-foot  walk  and  is  taught 
by  gently  urging  the  horse  out  of  the  ordinary  walk,  but  restraining 
him  from  a  trot  or  rack.  It  is  intermediate  between  the  walk  and  rack. 
The  movement  of  the  legs  is  more  rapid  than  in  a  walk,  but  in  about 
the  same  rhythm.  The  true  running  walk  is  usually  characterized  by 
a  bobbing  or  nodding  of  the  head,  and,  in  some  instances,  by  a  flopping 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  465 

of  the  ears,  in  unison  with  the  foot-falls.  It  is  an  all-day  gait,  easy 
and  comfortable  to  both  horse  and  rider,  and  equal  to  six  miles  an  hour 
or  more.     It  is,  however,  not  as  showy  or  attractive  as  the  other  gaits. 

The  Three-Gaited  Saddle  Horse 

This  type  is  also  styled  the  "walk,  trot,  canter  horse,"  and  the 
"park  hack."  This  is  the  horse  which  conforms  to  English  fashions, 
whereas  the  five-gaited  saddler  is  exclusively  an  American  type. 

General  appearance.— The  walk,  trot,  canter  horse  usually  has  his 
mane  pulled  and  his  tail  docked  and  set,  in  accordance  with  English 
fashion,  whereas  the  five-gaited  horse  wears  a  full  mane  and  tail. 
Otherwise  the  two  types  have  much  the  same  general  appearance. 
Most  three-gaited  saddlers  are  American  Saddle  Horses  which,  for  one 
reason  or  another,  are  marketed  as  three-gaited  horses.  There  are 
also  quite  a  number  of  walk,  trot  horses  which  are  of  Thoroughbred 
breeding,  and  some  have  a  strong  infusion  of  Standardbred  breeding. 
In  such  cases,  the  head  and  tail  are  not  carried  so  high,  and  there  is 
not  the  evidence  of  style  in  form  and  action  which  characterizes  the 
horse  that  is  of  American  Saddle  Horse  breeding. 

Gaits. — This  horse  must  show  three  gaits,  and  three  only:  the  walk, 
trot,  and  canter.  It  is  as  objectionable  for  a  three-gaited  horse  to 
show  more  than  the  gaits  mentioned  as  for  the  five-gaited  horse  to 
know  less  than  five  gaits. 

While  many  people  have  adopted  the  walk,  trot,  canter  horse  in 
preference  to  the  five-gaited  type  because  they  accept  English  horse 
fashions  as  law,  there  is  still  another  reason  why  the  American  type 
with  its  five  or  more  gaits  is  not  favored  by  all  riders.  The  reason  is 
that  there  is  no  advantage  in  having  a  horse  with  all  the  gaits  unless 
the  rider  is  skillful  enough  to  keep  them  distinct.  If  the  rider  is  less 
instructed  than  the  horse,  a  sad  confusion  of  paces  is  apt  to  result. 
A  well-mouthed,  well-suppled  horse  with  a  good  trot  and  a  good  canter 
is  more  useful  to  the  ordinary  rider  than  is  one  of  the  highly  accom- 
plished gaited  saddlers;  hence  the  popularity  of  the  three-gaited  horse, 
especially  in  the  larger  cities.  Saddle  horse  breeders  recognize  this 
state  of  affairs  and  annually  send  to  market  a  large  number  of  three- 
gaited  animals,  as  well  as  large  numbers  of  five-gaited  horses. 

Outside  of  the  matter  of  gaits,  the  requirements  for  the  five-gaited 
and  three-gaited  types  are  so  nearly  identical  that  one  discussion  will 
suffice  for  both. 

REQUIREMENTS  OF  THE  SADDLE  HORSE 

The  essential  points  to  be  looked  for  in  a  saddle  horse  are  (1) 
beauty  of  conformation,  (2)  sure-footedness,  (3)  comfortable  seat,  (4) 


466  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

best  of  manners,  (5)  knowledge  of  the  gaits,  (6)  endurance  and  dura- 
bility, and  (7)  dark  solid  color. 

1.  Beauty  of  conformation. — Attractiveness  of  form  and  action 
is  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  valuable  in  the  saddle  horse  as  in  the  carriage 
horse.  People  who  ride  for  pleasure  take  as  much  pride  in  the  owner- 
ship of  an  attractive  animal  as  do  the  owners  of  carriage  horses. 

2.  Sure-footedness. — Saddle  action  must,  first  of  all,  be  safe  and 
sure.  A  horse  inclined  to  stumble  is  dangerous  and  cannot  be  highly- 
valued  for  saddle  purposes. 

3.  Comfortable  seat. — Though  a  horse  be  sure-footed,  he  will  not 
be  of  much  use  or  value  for  saddle  work  unless  he  gives  his  rider  a 
pleasant  ride.     Rough-gaited  horses  are  not  useful  saddle  horses. 

4.  Manners. — The  intimate  relation  between  horse  and  rider 
calls  for  the  very  best  of  manners.  Conduct  that  would  be  tolerated 
from  a  horse  in  harness  may  be  very  disagreeable  if  the  horse  is  under 
saddle.  The  very  nature  of  the  use  to  which  the  saddler  is  put  makes 
manners  one  of  the  prime  essentials. 

5.  Knowledge  of  gaits. — To  a  considerable  extent  the  value  of 
the  saddle  animal  is  measured  by  his  knowledge  of  the  gaits.  As  this 
is  largely  a  matter  of  training,  it  is  placed  fifth  in  the  list  of  require- 
ments. There  must  be  no  mixing  of  gaits;  each  gait  must  be  distinct, 
and  the  horse  should  change  gaits  promptly  and  easily  at  the  signal 
from  the  rider. 

6.  Endurance  and  durability. — This  implies  a  good  middle  and 
enough  substance  combined  with  quality  of  bone  and  joints  to  insure 
good  wearing  qualities. 

7.  Color. — Dark  colors  are  much  preferred,  including  bay,  brown, 
chestnut,  and  black.  Flashy  colors  such  as  dapple  gray,  roan,  dun, 
cream,  white,  and  parti-color  are  too  conspicuous  for  ordinary  saddle 
use. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  SADDLE  TYPE 

Size  and  weight. — These  are  quite  variable  depending  on  the 
character  of  the  work  and  the  weight  of  the  rider.  The  height  is  usually 
from  15-1  to  15-3  hands,  and  the  weight  from  1,000  to  1,150  pounds. 
For  the  purpose  of  comparison  the  heights  and  weights  of  the  various 
sub-types  of  saddle  horses  are  here  given: 

Type  Height  Weight 

Five  gaited 15    —16  900—1,200 

Three  gaited 14-3—16  900—1,200 

Hunter 15-2—16-1  1,000—1,250 

Cavalry 15    —16  950—1,200 

Polo  pony 14    —14-2  850—1,000 

Conformation. — The  saddle  horse  is  considered  by  many  people 
to  be  the  most  stylish,  beautiful,  and  finished  of  all  horses.     The  princi- 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  467 

pal  requirements  in  conformation  are  (1)  a  long,  refined  neck,  (2) 
nicely  sloping  pasterns  and  shoulders,  and  (3)  moderately  high  and 
refined  withers.  The  lines  of  the  head  should  be  cameo-like  in  sharp- 
ness and  clean-cutness.  An  ideal  saddler  will  naturally  have  a  head 
showing  an  unusually  kind  disposition  and  high  intelligence,  for  the 
intimate  relation  between  horse  and  rider  demands  the  best  of  manners 
in  the  horse  and  thinking  ability  on  both  sides.  The  head  should  be 
set  at  the  right  angle  on  a  very  long,  refined,  nicely  arched  neck.  Un- 
less there  is  lots  of  horse  in  front  of  the  saddle,  the  appearance  is 
spoiled,  and  a  horse  with  a  short,  straight,  heavy  neck  is  not  easily 
controlled.  There  should  be  easy  flexion  of  jaw  and  neck,  and  this  is 
possible  only  with  a  long,  refined  neck,  properly  arched.  However,  a 
"weedy"  neck,  that  is,  one  lacking  in  muscular  development,  is  not 
wanted.  Much  attention  must  be  given  to  the  slope  of  pastern  and 
shoulder,  for  straight  pasterns  and  shoulders  are  more  objectionable  in 
the  saddle  horse  than  in  any  other  type  because  they  are  almost  certain 
to  make  the  horse  a  hard  rider.  Height  and  refinement  of  withers  are 
necessary  for  a  similar  reason.  Horses  that  are  low  in  the  forehand 
are  not  comfortable  to  ride.  Furthermore,  the  saddle  cannot  be  made 
secure  on  round,  flat  withers,  this  being  particularly  true  of  the  side 
saddle.  The  extension  of  the  shoulder  into  the  back  and  shortness 
and  strength  of  coupling  are  very  important.  A  straight  or  reached 
back  does  not  aff'ord  an  easy  ride;  there  should  be  a  certain  degree  of 
springiness,  without  any  weakness  or  sway-backed  conformation. 
The  saddle  horse  is  somewhat  upstanding,  and  the  head  and  tail  should 
be  smartly  carried. 

Refinement  and  finish. — The  saddle  horse  should  possess  a  high 
degree  of  quality,  and  lots  of  smoothness  from  end  to  end.  There 
should  be  greater  refinement  of  head,  ear,  and  bone  than  in  the  heavy- 
harness  type  of  horse.  The  shoulders  should  be  well  laid  in,  and  the 
hindquarters  smoothly  turned.  The  smoothness  of  the  typical  saddler 
is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  angular  appearance  of  the  roadster. 
Rotundity  of  body  is  a  highly  desirable  feature.  Levelness  of  croup  is 
more  important  in  the  saddle  horse  than  in  any  other  typ^',  if  a  horse 
has  a  steep  croup,  the  defect  is  magnified  a  great  deal  when  the  saddle 
is  placed  upon  his  back,  and  he  presents  a  plain  appearance. 

Action. — The  action  should  be  energetic,  elastic,  of  moderate 
height,  and  especially  there  should  be  trueness  of  motion  in  all  gaits. 
Gracefulness  and  ease  of  action  are  very  desirable.  A  springy  step 
resulting  from  sloping  pasterns  and  shoulders  is  more  essential  in  the 
saddle  horse  than  in  any  other  type.  A  straight-shouldered  and  -pas- 
terned  horse  gives  one  a  ride  like  a  carriage  without  springs.  Collected 
action,  by  which  is  meant  harmony  or  unison  of  movement  between 


468  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

fore  and  hind  legs,  is  necessary  for  gracefulness  and  comfort.  It  also 
means  that  the  legs  will  be  kept  at  all  times  under  the  weight,  thus 
permitting  of  quick  turns  or  any  other  evolutions  desired.  Collected 
action  is  largely  a  result  of  properly  training  the  horse,  and  skill  on  the 
part  of  the  rider.  By  pressure  of  the  leg,  or  use  of  the  whip  or  spur, 
the  horse  is  kept  alert,  with  his  hind  legs  well  under  him,  while  the 
hands  bring  sufficient  pressure  on  the  mouth  to  restrain  the  movement 
slightly,  arch  the  neck,  and  secure  a  slight  yielding  of  the  jaw.  If  the 
action  is  not  collected,  the  horse  moves  awkwardly  and  executes  sudden 
commands  in  a  clumsy  fashion. 

Temperament  and  disposition. — The  temperament  should  be  san- 
guine, as  in  all  other  light  horses.  The  disposition  should  be  kind, 
willing,  honest,  and  courageous.  There  should  be  docility  with  high 
spirit  and  animation. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

THE  HUNTER  AND  POLO  PONY 

The  hunter  and  polo  pony  differ  rather  markedly  from  the  two 
types  of  saddle  horses  described  in  the  preceding  chapter,  largely  be- 
cause they  are  required  to  do  work  of  a  highly  specialized  nature  in 
which  performance  is  of  greater  importance  and  beauty  less  valued 
than  with  the  gaited  horse  and  park  hack.  Hence,  the  hunter  and 
polo  pony  are  given  separate  consideration  in  order  that  their  peculiari- 
ties of  type  and  requirements  may  be  better  emphasized. 

The  Hunter 

The  hunter  is  the  type  used  in  following  the  hounds  in  fox  hunting. 
He  must  be  up  to  carrying  his  rider  at  good  speed  over  long  distances 
across  country,  jumping  fences  and  ditches  when  called  upon  to  do  so. 
Like  the  park  hack,  this  is  an  English  type.  The  American  demand 
for  this  horse  is  limited,  but  the  supply  is  more  limited,  and  some  high 
prices  have  been  paid  for  hunters  in  this  country. 

From  the  nature  of  the  work,  the  hunter  must  be  a  horse  of  more 
size,  ruggedness,  and  constitution  than  the  other  types  of  saddle  horses. 
He  must  be  a  stayer  at  hard  work,  a  jumper,  and  a  horse  of  courage 
and  decent  manners.  His  bone  must  be  of  good  size  and  of  the  right 
quality,  and  there  must  be  an  evidence  of  strength  throughout  his 
conformation.  Otherwise  he  cannot  long  withstand  the  hardships  of 
the  hunting  field. 

Height  and  weight. — With  reference  to  height,  much  will  depend 
upon  circumstances.  Weight-carrying  hunters  are  always  more  diffi- 
cult to  procure,  and  command  higher  prices.  Short,  light-weight  men 
prefer  15-2  hands  to  15-3,  but  where  fences  are  high,  tall  horses  are 
necessary.  Some  hunters  are  nearly  17  hands.  Hunters  are  classed 
as  light,  middle,  and  heavy  weight  according  to  their  size  and  weight. 
Most  of  the  hunting  horses  in  use  range  in  height  from  15-2  to  16-1 
hands,  and  in  weight  from  1,000  to  1,250  pounds. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  hunter  should  be  that  of  a  thin- 
skinned,  big-boned,  small-headed,  fine-shouldered,  deep-chested,  clean- 
legged  animal,  with  a  neatly  turned,  compact  body,  and  having  a  facial 
expression  of  great  keenness,  docility,  and  quick  perception. 

The  head  should  be  refined;  the  forehead  straight;  the  eyes  large 
and  prominent;  the  ears  erect  and  thin;  and  the  skin  covering  the  head 

469 


470 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


and  face  should  also  be  thin,  rendering  the  various  prominences  upon 
the  skull  easily  apparent.  The  high-class  hunter  should  have  a  mild, 
keen,  and  extremely  intelligent  expression. 

The  neck  must  be  long,  narrow  towards  the  poll,  and  the  head 
should  be  carried  obliquely,  a  lofty  carriage  being  undesirable  in  the 
hunter.  As  the  shoulders  are  approached,  the  neck  should  increase  in 
width,  be  of  moderate  thickness,  and  clean  along  its  upper  border,  with 
a  closely-cropped  mane.  Many  hunters  are  very  weedy  in  the  neck, 
and  if  this  is  the  case,  the  horse  is  unable  to  recover  himself  in  the 


Fig.  178. — A  typical  hunter.     Surprise,  a  winner  at  the  Royal  Hunter  Show 
and  many  other  shows  in  England.     Owned  by  Sir  Merrick  Burrells. 


event  of  a  fall,  as  the  muscles  of  the  neck  materially  assist  in  raising 
the  forepart  of  the  body  in  its  attempt  to  regain  balance. 

The  upper  border  of  the  neck  should  pass  into  high  withers,  and 
most  of  the  best  hunters  are  high  in  this  region. 

When  judging  hunters,  attention  must  be  fixed  upon  the  shoulders, 
not  only  while  the  horse  is  at  rest,  but  also  when  jumping,  as  good 
shoulder  action  is  one  of  the  most  important  points  in  a  hunter.  In 
action  it  must  be  free  and  full,  yet  fine,  because  if  the  shoulders  are 
logged  up  with  muscles  (heavy  shoulders),  the  free  action  is  interfered 
with  when  jumping. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


471 


The  chest  must  be  deep;  in  fact,  it  is  self  evident  that  a  hunter 
should  be  "well-hearted"  in  order  to  provide  plenty  of  space  for  the 
free  play  of  heart  and  lungs  under  extreme  exertion.  Width  of  chest 
is  not  required  and  often  means  bulky  shoulders. 

A  slightly  flat  side  is  desirable,  though  the  ribs  must  not  be  short, 
otherwise  the  horse  becomes  "tucked  up"  or  "washy"  in  appearance. 

The  back  and  loin  should  be  of  medium  length,  and  the  latter 
must  be  broad  and  clothed  with  powerful  muscles,  passing  into  neatly 


Fig.  179. — The  hunter  in  action.     Edward  B.  McLean's  Alarms  jumping  at 
the  National  Capitol  Horse  Show,  Washington,  D.  C,  ridden  by  Louis  Leith. 


turned  quarters — the  so-called  "goose  rump"  being  of  objectionable 
conformation. 

The  arms  should  be  strong  and  powerful;  the  forearms  of  good 
breadth  above  and  ending  below  in  broad-jointed,  clean  knees.  A 
stiff  knee  is  certainly  detrimental,  as  is  also  low  daisy-cutting  action, 
as  such  horses  cannot  freely  flex  and  extend  their  joints  during  the 
leap. 

The  thighs  and  gaskins  must  be  neatly  turned,  and  clothed  with 
powerful  muscles.     Particular  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  hocks  and 


472 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


to  hock  action;  the  hock  joints  must  be  broad,  deep  from  front  to  back, 
clean  in  outhne,  and  covered  with  thin  skin. 

The  cannons,  fetlocks,  pasterns,  and  feet  demand  special  examina- 
tion. The  so-called  "clean"  legs  are  indispensable,  and  every  horse- 
man knows  the  meaning  of  this  term.  Associated  with  cleanness  must 
be  considerable  substance.  The  fetlocks  must  be  capable  of  full  flexion. 
The  ideal  pastern  is  one  with  a  moderate  degree  of  slope,  broad  in 
front,  deep  from  front  to  back,  and  well  rounded  at  the  sides.  It 
should  be  covered  with  thin  skin.  Pasterns  that  are  too  long,  too 
oblique,  or  light  in  the  bone,  are  of  bad  conformation;  and  short,  up- 
right pasterns  are  extremely  objectionable  for  very  evident  reasons. 


Fig.  180. — A  hunt  team  and  pack  of  fox  hounds. 


The  feet  must  be  concave  on  their  lower  surface,  proportionate  in  size, 
of  good  shape,  well  open  at  the  heels,  neither  contracted  nor  cracked. 

Color. — In  selecting  a  hunter,  color  seldom  plays  any  part,  and 
in  the  hunting  field  are  horses  of  almost  every  color.  Bay,  brown, 
light  or  dark  chestnut,  and  gray  are  the  principal  colors,  more  especially 
bay  and  brown,  with  either  white  or  black  points. 

Disposition  is  of  great  importance  in  order  to  insure  the  safety  of 
other  horses,  the  hounds,  and  the  rider.  Some  hunters  are  tremendous 
pullers,  in  fact,  defy  all  attempts  to  hold  them.  There  is  great  differ- 
ence in  temperament  and  disposition;  one  hunter  will  rush  at  his  fences 
in  a  reckless  and  headstrong  way,  and  another  will  even  walk  to  his 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  473 

jump  and  clear  it  in  a  businesslike  manner.  It  is  because  so  many- 
Thoroughbreds  have  bad  dispositions,  that  horses  having  a  small 
amount  of  draft  blood  are  often  more  desirable  as  hunters  than  are 
those  of  straight  Thoroughbred  breeding. 

Production  of  hunters. — There  is  no  breed  of  hunters.  They  are 
largely  of  Thoroughbred  breeding,  about  seven  parts  Thoroughbred 
and  one  part  cold  (draft)  blood  being  a  generally  accepted  formula 
in  breeding  hunters.  This  proportion  is  secured  by  mating  a  three- 
quarter-blood  mare  with  a  Thoroughbred  stallion  of  correct  type  to 
get  hunters.  The  infusion  of  cold  blood  gives  greater  size  and  rugged- 
ness  and  a  better  disposition,  but  is  said  to  lessen  to  some  extent  the 
staying  qualities  and  gameness  of  the  animal.  Some  most  excellent 
hunters  have  come  of  straight  Thoroughbred  breeding.  Ireland  has 
long  enjoyed  a  wide  reputation  for  the  rearing  and  sale  of  the  best 
hunting  horses,  the  name  "Irish  hunter"  carrying  the  idea  of  super- 
excellence  in  this  type  of  horse. 

The  Polo  Pony 

Modern  polo  is  largely  a  rich  man's  game.  It  is  played  with  four 
mounted  men  on  a  side,  the  object  being  to  drive  a  wooden  ball  be- 
tween goal  posts  at  the  ends  of  a  field  300  yards  long  and  120  to  150 
yards  wide.  Each  player  carries  a  long-handled  mallet  of  regulation 
design.  It  is  a  very  fast  game  for  both  ponies  and  men,  requiring 
quickness  and  precision. 

History  of  polo. — Polo  existed  in  Persia  and  Turkey  before  the 
tenth  century.  Thence  it  spread  to  Central  Asia,  Thibet,  and  Central 
India,  being  found  at  Calcutta  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 
It  is  said  to  have  also  existed  in  Japan  a  thousand  years  ago.  English 
officers  returning  from  India  in  1874  started  polo  at  the  Hurlingham 
Club,  Fulham,  England.  Hurlingham  has  since  been  recognized  as 
the  great  center  of  the  sport,  and  the  rules  it  has  laid  down  have  been 
accepted  as  authority  in  every  country  except  America,  where  a  few 
changes  in  these  rules  have  been  made. 

The  game  was  introduced  into  this  country  in  1876.  When  first 
introduced,  the  ponies  used  were  13-2  hands  high,  but  larger  and  faster 
ponies  were  found  more  advantageous.  The  present  rules  limit  the 
height  of  ponies  to  14-2  hands  or  under,  but  this  rule  is  not  strictly 
enforced;  the  modern  game  is  played  at  such  high  speed  that  only  big 
14-3  to  15-hand  Thoroughbred  or  three-quarter-blood  ponies  are  con- 
sidered good  enough  for  important  matches.  The  range  in  weight  is 
from  850  to  1,000  pounds. 

Demand  for  good  ponies. — There  was  a  time  when  western  cow 
ponies  made  acceptable  mounts  for  the  game,  and  a  small  percentage 


474 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


of  these  developed  into  really  good  polo  ponies.  In  almost  every  case, 
however,  the  best  modern  ponies  were  sired  by  Thoroughbred  stallions. 
English  ponies  used  for  polo  have  always  carried  more  or  less  Thor- 
oughbred inheritance;  they  are  bred  in  the  purple,  trained  two  years, 
and  carefully  stabled  and  fed.  In  1909  the  American  team  which  went 
to  Hurlingham  to  compete  for  the  world's  championship  was  enabled 
to  win  largely  because  of  the  excellence  of  their  ponies.  These  ponies 
were  English-bred,  and  were  reported  to  have  cost  high  prices  ranging 
up  to  J$5,000.  In  championship  contests,  four  to  six  ponies  are  used 
by  each  player  and  some  players  maintain  a  big  string  of  ponies  from 
which  to  make  selections  for  games. 


'^*^. 


Fig.  181. — Polo  pony  of  excellent  type.  Owned  by  L.  Waterbury  and  ridden 
by  him  when  a  member  of  the  American  team  which  won  the  International  Cup 
from  England. 

What  constitutes  a  good  polo  pony? — The  polo  pony  must  combine 
speed  with  weight-carrying  ability.  He  must  be  wiry,  agile,  and  under 
proper  training  must  acquire  ability  to  quickly  start,  stop,  and  wheel. 
He  must  have  a  light  mouth.  He  must  be  intelligent  and  learn  to 
like  the  game  and  follow  the  ball.  The  disposition  must  be  such  as 
insures  a  level  head,  doggedness,  docility,  courage,  and  quickness.  A 
pony  that  pulls  hard  or  becomes  wild  in  a  fast  scrimmage,  or  swerves 
off  the  ball,  is  useless  in  first-class  polo. 

The  game  calls  for  lots  of  endurance  and  wearing  quality,  hence 
the  conformation  of  middle,  hindquarters,  feet,  and  legs  largely  deter- 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


475 


mines  a  pony's  adaptability  for  the  game.  The  object  of  breeders  is 
to  produce  a  pony  14-2  hands  high,  able  to  carry  from  168  to  200 
pounds  for  ten  minutes  in  a  fast  game. 

The  polo  pony  should  be  built  like  a  weight-carrying  hunter.  His 
head  should  be  well  set  on,  wide  between  the  jaws,  with  plenty  of  room 
at  the  throttle.  He  should  have  a  big,  clear,  sound,  prominent  eye; 
small,  pricked  ears,  indicative  of  alertness;  a  well-formed,  well-arched, 
and  muscular  neck;  a  fine,  sloping  shoulder;  not  too  fine  at  the  withers, 
and  his  breast  should  be  ample  and  in  proportion  to  the  remainder  of 
the  forequarters.  His  forearms  should  be  big  and  powerful,  the  knees 
wide,  particularly  good  under  the  knee,  with  a  short  cannon.  The 
fetlocks  should  be  large  and  clean,  the  pasterns  well  supplied  with  bone, 


Fig.  182. — The  polo  pony  in  action. 


and  of  proper  slope  and  strength.  The  foot  should  be  of  good  size, 
smooth,  nicely  shaped,  the  heels  open,  and  the  frog  well  developed  and 
elastic. 

He  should  be  deep  from  withers  to  sternum,  and  fairly  wide 
through  the  chest;  he  should  be  short  in  the  back,  well  coupled,  ribbed 
close  up  to  the  hip,  with  plenty  of  muscle  behind  the  saddle.  His 
thighs  and  quarters  should  be  big  and  powerful,  and  the  gaskin  should 
bulge  with  muscle  also.  The  hock  should  be  broad  and  flat,  with  the 
natural  prominences  clean-cut  and  well  developed.  The  tendon  of 
Achilles  should  be  well  defined  and  powerful.  There  should  be  great 
bone  below  the  hock,  and  in  other  respects  the  hind  leg  should  be 
similar  to  the  fore  one. 


476  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Production  of  polo  ponies.— At  present  the  only  method  of  pro- 
ducing ponies  such  as  the  modern  game  demands  is  the  mating  of  polo 
pony  mares  with  a  Thoroughbred  stallion  of  approved  type.  How- 
ever, a  very  large  percentage  of  get  is  over  height  and  only  a  small 
percentage  of  foals  that  are  of  proper  size  have  the  conformation  and 
disposition  to  become  polo  ponies.  The  breeding  of  this  pony  is  a 
proposition  only  for  the  specialist  who  makes  a  special  study  of  the 
requirements  of  players  and  of  methods  of  production. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 

The  present  rank  and  importance  of  the  leading  horse  markets 
is  shown  by  the  following  figures  giving  the  receipts  of  horses  and 
mules  for  three  years,  as  reported  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricultural 
Economics: 

Receipts  of  horses  and  mules  at  leading  markets  in  three  years 

Market  1922  1921  1920  Total 

1.  St.  Louis 95,048  67,756  143,425  306,229 

2.  Kansas  City 38,310  30,453  71,797  140,560 

3.  Chicago 31,689  33,723  43,020  108,432 

4.  Fort  Worth 28,610  13,086  45,362  87,058 

5.  Memphis 46,249  14,770  8,006  69,025 

6.  Buffalo 21,159  23,687  22,526  67,372 

7.  St.  Joseph 15,961  11,580  29,768  57,309 

8.  Wichita 17,936  10,885  24,714  53,535 

9.  Pittsburgh 14,131  10,742  20,472  45,345 

10.  Denver 13,485  9,639  17,591  40,715 

11.  San  Antonio 9,212  6,314  24,573  40,099 

12.  Richmond 13,161  10,266  16,167  39,594 

13.  Sioux  City 7,954  7,262  23,238  38,454 

14.  Atlanta 7,955  3,119  25,931  37,005 

15.  Omaha 8,871  6,779  18,751  34,401 

16.  Montgomery 14,133  4,002  11,969  30,104 

Totals 383,864         264,063         547,310         1,195,237 

Methods  and  cost  of  marketing. — G.  E.  Wentworth,  superintend- 
ent of  the  horse  market  at  the  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  states:  ^ 

"Carloads  of  horses  for  sale  on  the  Chicago  market  receive  the 
best  handling  when  consigned  to  reliable  commission  men.  They  can 
be  sold  privately  or  at  auction.  The  usual  custom  is  for  the  shipper 
to  accompany  his  horses,  arriving  at  the  market  on  Friday  or  Saturday, 
selling  as  many  at  retail  as  he  can  on  Saturday  and  Sunday  morning 
up  until  10  o'clock,  which  is  when  the  Chicago  market  closes  on  Sunday, 
putting  the  rest  of  his  horses  into  the  auction  on  Monday  or  Tuesday. 
The  shipper  gets  his  position  in  the  auction  according  to  the  order  in 
which  the  horses  are  removed  from  the  cars. 

"The  feed  rates  on  the  Chicago  market  are  at  present  $1.25  for 
the  first  day  and  $1  for  each  succeeding  day  per  horse.  The  commis- 
sion for  selling  is  $3  a  horse.  Nearly  all  the  shippers  find  it  advanta- 
geous to  employ  a  "swipe"  to  put  their  horses  in  condition.  They  all 
braid  and  sack  their  horses'  tails  before  going  into  the  auction,  as  it 
makes  them  look  more  attractive.     Some  horses  are  sold  shod  and  some 

1  Breeder's  Gazette,  Feb.  22,  1923,  p.  258. 
477 


478  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

unshod.  The  shoeing  rates  in  Chicago  are  $1  per  shoe,  at  present. 
Exclusive  of  the  freight,  shippers  tell  me  that  their  expenses  can  be 
figured  to  average  at  least  $8  a  horse  in  Chicago." 

Auction  rules. ' — At  the  large  horse  markets,  horses  are  sold  at 
auction  under  certain  rules  which  are  well  known  and  understood  by 
all  horsemen  who  buy  or  sell  at  these  markets.  As  the  horse  comes 
into  the  auction  ring,  a  clerk  on  the  auctioneer's  stand  displays  a  pla- 
card on  which  appears  in  large  letters  the  rule  under  which  the  animal 
will  be  sold,  such  as  "Sound,"  "Serviceably  sound,"  "At  the  halter," 
etc.  The  rule  under  which  the  horse  is  sold  is  a  guarantee  made  by 
the  seller  to  the  buyer.  The  buyer  has  until  noon  of  the  following  day 
to  refuse  the  horse,  if  upon  examination  and  trial  he  finds  that  the 
animal  is  not  as  represented. 

The  definitions  of  the  principal  rules  which  govern  the  sale  of 
horses  are  given  below.  Exceptions  to  these  rules  may  be  announced 
from  the  auction  stand,  pointing  out  the  defects,  in  which  case  they 
are  recorded  and  go  with  the  horse. 

1.  Sound. — Perfectly  sound  in  every  way. 

2.  Serviceably  sound. — Virtually  a  sound  animal,  barring  slight 
blemishes  which  do  not  interfere  with  his  usefulness  in  any  way.  His 
wind  and  eyes  must  be  good,  but  a  spot  or  streak  in  the  eye  which  does 
not  affect  the  sight  will  be  considered  serviceably  sound  as  long  as  the 
pupil  of  the  eye  is  good.     He  must  not  be  lame  or  sore  in  any  way. 

3.  Wind  and  work. — The  only  guarantee  this  carries  with  it  is 
that  the  animal  has  good  wind  and  is  a  good  worker. 

4.  Work  only. — He  must  be  a  good  worker,  but  everything  else 
goes  with  him.     No  other  guarantee  than  to  work, 

5.  Legs  go. — Everything  that  is  on  the  animal's  legs  goes  with 
him;  nothing  is  guaranteed  except  that  he  must  not  be  lame  or  crampy. 
He  must,  however,  be  serviceably  sound  in  every  other  respect. 

6.  At  the  halter. — Sold  just  as  he  stands  without  any  recommenda- 
tions. He  may  be  lame,  vicious,  balky,  a  kicker,  or  anything  else. 
The  purchaser  takes  all  the  risk.     The  title  only  is  guaranteed. 

Market  requirements. — The  factors  that  determine  how  well 
horses  sell  upon  the  market  are  soundness,  conformation,  quality,  con- 
dition, action,  age,  color,  training,  and  style.  These,  together  with 
some  minor  considerations,  are  discussed  below. 

Soundness. — The  market  demands  that  a  horse  be  serviceably 
sound,  by  which  is  meant  one  that  is  as  good  as  a  sound  horse  so  far 
as  service  is  concerned.     He  may  have  slight  blemishes,  but  nothing 


1  Illinois  Bulletin  122,  Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Horses  and  Mules,  by  R.  C. 
Obrecht,  has  been  used  as  the  basis  for  much  of  this  chapter  and  Chapter  XXXIX. 
The  student  will  find  it  well  worth  while  to  refer  to  this  bulletin,  especially  for  the 
excellent  illustrations  which  it  contains. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


479 


that  is  likely  to  cause  lameness  or  soreness.  He  must  be  good  in  wind 
and  eyes,  but  may  have  small  splints  and  puffs,  and  a  little  rounding 
on  the  curb  joint.  Broken  wind;  thick  wind ;  sidebones;  unsound  hocks 
such  as  curbs,  spavins,  and  thoroughpins;  large  splints;  and  buck  knees 
are  discriminated  against. 

Conformation. — If  a  horse  is  to  do  hard  work,  with  a  minimum  of 
wear,  and  give  the  longest  possible  period  of  service,  he  must  possess 
a  conformation  indicative  of  strength,  endurance,  and  longevity,  the 
indications  of  which  are  good  feet,  a  good  constitution,  good  feeding 
qualities,  good  bone,  and  symmetry  of  conformation.  Conformation 
has  been  discussed  fully  in  connection  with  the  various  types  described 
in  preceding  chapters,  and  no  further  discussion  is  necessary  here. 


Fig.  183. — Horse  market  at  the  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago.  Uindmg  and 
trying-out  horses  immediately  after  purchase.  If  the  horse  is  found  to  be  not  as 
represented  at  time  of  sale,  the  buyer  has  the  privilege  of  returning  him  to  the  seller. 


Quality  in  a  horse  is  of  great  importance,  as  has  already  been 
emphasized.  A  horse  lacking  in  quality  is  a  comparatively  cheap 
animal. 

Condition. — To  be  appreciated  on  the  market,  a  horse  must  be  fat 
and  possess  a  good  coat  of  hair,  which  gives  him  a  sleek  appearance. 
Condition  is  most  important  in  draft,  chunk,  and  wagon  horses.  When 
a  green  horse  goes  to  the  city,  he  loses  weight  during  the  first  few  weeks 
until  he  becomes  used  to  the  new  conditions,  and  it  is  a  decided  advan- 
tage if  he  enters  city  work  carrying  a  high  finish.  When  a  horse  is 
fed  to  a  high  state  of  fatness  it  invariably  improves  his  spirit  and  style, 
as  well  as  his  form  and  weight.  In  some  individuals,  fat  covers  many 
faults.  The  man  who  sends  his  horse  to  market  in  finished  form  is 
offering  the  animal  in  most  attractive  condition.  Condition  is  a  very 
important  item  of  value  on  the  horse  market. 


480  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Action  has  been  fully  discussed  in  preceding  chapters.  We  have 
seen  that  the  requirements  vary  according  to  the  type  of  horse,  and  that 
action  is  always  a  very  important  item  of  value,  in  some  instances  being 
as  important  a  factor  as  any  in  determining  the  value  of  the  horse. 

Age. — Horses  sell  best  from  five  to  eight  years  old.  Heavy  horses, 
such  as  drafters  and  chunks,  sell  best  from  five  to  seven  years  old,  but 
a  well-matured  four-year-old  in  good  condition  will  find  ready  sale. 
Carriage,  saddle,  and  road  horses  sell  better  with  a  little  more  age, 
because  they  do  not  mature  so  early  and  their  education  is  not  com- 
pleted as  soon  as  that  of  heavy  horses.  They  are  most  desired  from 
five  to  eight  years  old. 

Color. — As  a  rule,  the  color  of  horses  is  of  secondary  importance, 
provided  they  possess  individual  excellence.  Previous  discussions  of 
the  various  types  have  shown  that  color  is  of  more  importance  in 
pleasure  horses  than  in  those  used  for  business  and  utility  purposes. 

Training  and  disposition. — Every  class  calls  for  a  horse  of  good 
disposition  and  well  educated  for  his  work.  Mere  "greenness"  in  a 
drafter,  however,  does  not  affect  the  price  much  if  he  is  free  from  vice 
and  bad  habits,  but  carriage  and  saddle  horses  must  be  thoroughly 
schooled  in  order  to  realize  good  values. 

Sex  is  not  of  great  importance  in  the  market.  However,  geldings 
sell  better  than  mares  for  city  use,  as  there  is  some  liability  of  mares 
being  in  foal,  and  if  not,  the  recurrence  of  heat  is  objectionable.  For 
farm  use  and  southern  trade,  mares  are  preferred,  because  farmers  buy 
horses  with  the  expectation  of  breeding  them. 

The  breed  to  which  a  horse  belongs  has  but  little  or  no  influence 
upon  his  market  value  as  long  as  he  has  individual  excellence. 

Style  and  freshness.— If  able  to  shape  themselves  well  in  harness, 
very  plain  horses  often  make  a  stylish  showing,  and  this  increases  their 
value  materially.  They  should  be  spirited  and  energetic,  which  gener- 
ally comes  from  being  well  fed.  They  should  be  well  groomed,  the 
hair  being  short  and  sleek,  lying  close  to  the  body,  and  possessing  a 
luster  which  indicates  health.  Clipping  of  the  foretop  and  legs  should 
not  be  practiced  in  the  case  of  heavy  horses,  as  it  is  an  indication  of 
staleness  or  second-hand  horses.  The  presence  of  the  foretop  and 
feather  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  freshness  from  the  country.  The  feet 
should  be  in  good  condition  and  of  a  good  length  hoof,  which  is  neces- 
sary to  hold  a  shoe. 

Breeders  make  no  real  effort  to  supply  some  of  the  market  classes 
of  horses,  either  because  the  demand  is  very  limited  or  the  price  too 
small.  Such  classes  are  supplied  by  careless  breeding,  by  the  mixing 
of  types,  and  by  the  misfits  which  result  even  when  the  breeding  of 
horses  is  conducted  as  carefully  as  possible. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


48i 


The  classification  outlined  below  includes  not  only  those  classes 
of  horses  which  are  regular  commodities  on  the  large  horse  markets, 
but  also  other  classes  which  are  only  to  be  had  from  certain  dealers 
and  breeders  who  cater  to  an  exclusive  trade  not  represented  at  the 
large  markets: 


General  class 

DRAFT  HORSES. 


CHUNKS 


Height 
Hands 


Weight 
Pounds 


Class 

f Heavy  Draft 16     to  17-2  1,750  to  2,200 

JLight  Draft 15-3  to  16-2  1,600  to  1,750 

[Loggers 16-1  to  17-2  1,700  to  2,200 


WAGON  HORSES 


carriage  HORSES. 


ROAD  HORSES 


SADDLE  HORSES. 


1,300  to  1,550 

1,200  to  1,400 

800  to  1,250 

1,350  to  1,500 
1,100  to  1,400 
1,150  to  1,300 
1,400  to  1,700 
1,200  to  1,700 

1,100  to  1,250 

900  to  1,150 

1,000  to  1,150 

1,050  to  1,200 

900  to  1,050 
900  to  1,150 

900  to  1,200 
900  to  1,200 
1,000  to  1,250 
950  to  1,200 
850  to  1,000 


Eastern  Chunks 15     to  16 

Farm  Chunks 15     to  15-3 

Southern  Chunks 15     to  15-3 

Expressers 15-3  to  16-2 

Delivery  Wagon 15     to  16 

Light  Artillery 15-2  to  16 

Heavv  Artillery 16     to  17 

Fire  Horses 15     to  17-2 

fCoach  Horses 15-1  to  16-1 

I  Cobs. 14-1  to  15-1 

I  Park  Horses 15     to  15-3 

[Cab  Horses 15-2  to  16-1 

/Runabout 14-3  to  15-2 

\Roadsters 15     to  16 

f Five-Gaited  Saddler.  ...  15     to  16 
iThree-Gaited  Saddler. .  .14-3  to  16 

■j  Hunters 15-2  to  16-1 

Cavalry  Horses 15     to  16 

[Polo  Ponies 14     to  14-2 

f  Feeders 

1  Range  Horses 
Ponies 
Plugs 
Weeds 

Draft  Horses 

A  full  description  of  draft  type  has  already  been  presented,  so 
that  it  is  only  necessary  to  mention  here  the  chief  distinctions  between 
the  three  market  classes.  Heavy  Draft,  Light  Draft,  and  Loggers. 

Heavy  drafters  are  the  heavier  weights  of  the  draft  class;  they 
stand  from  16  to  17-2  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  1,750  to  2,200 
pounds. 

The  light  drafter  is  similar  in  type  to  the  heavy  drafter,  but  is 
smaller;  they  stand  from  15-3  to  16-2  hands,  and  weigh  from  1,600  to 
1,750  pounds.  While  15-3  hands  is  accepted  as  the  minimum  height 
for  light  drafters,  it  should  be  understood  that  a  15-3-hand  horse  is 
less  desirable  than  a  taller  horse,  and  he  borders  closely  on  the  class 
known  as  eastern  chunks. 

Loggers  are  horses  of  draft  t3T)e  that  are  bought  for  use  in  the 
lumbering  woods.     This  trade  demands  comparatively  cheap  horses, 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


482 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


yet  wants  them  big  and  strong.  Because  of  the  prices  paid,  the  trade 
is  usually  compelled  to  take  the  plainer,  rougher  horses  of  the  heavy 
draft  class,  and  some  are  slightly  blemished  or  unsound,  such  as  "off 
in  the  wind,"  small  sidebones,  curbs,  wire  marks,  etc.  Loggers  should 
stand  from  16-1  to  17-2  hands,  and  weigh  from  1,700  to  2,200  pounds. 

Chunks 

The  term  "chunk"  is  significant  of  the  conformation  of  most  of 
the  horses  in  this  group.  Chunks  are  of  three  classes.  Eastern,  Farm, 
and  Southern. 

Eastern  chunks. — At  one  time  this  class  was  known  as  Boston 
chunks,  but  as  the  trade  has  widened  to  other  cities  they  are  known 


Fig.  184. — Eastern  chunk. 

by  the  general  name  of  eastern  chunks.  They  are  most  generally 
used  in  pairs  or  three  abreast  to  do  the  same  work  as  draft  horses;  but 
may  be  used  in  pairs,  in  a  four-in-hand,  or  in  a  six-in-hand  team.  The 
eastern  chunk  may  be  briefly  and  accurately  described  as  a  horse  of 
draft  horse  type  in  all  respects  except  size  and  weight.  He  is,  then,  a 
little  drafter.  He  is  usually  a  little  more  low  set  and  compact  than 
the  true  drafter.  He  stands  from  15  to  16  hands  high,  usually  not 
over  15-3,  and  weighs  from  1,300  to  1,550  pounds,  depending  upon 
size  and  condition.  Being  required  to  do  his  work  mostly  at  the  walk, 
his  action  should  be  similar  to  that  of  the  draft  horse. 

Farm  chunks. — Horses  of  this  class  may  be  found  on  the  market 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but  during  the  spring  months  they  form  an 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  483 

important  feature  of  the  trade.  They  are  bought  to  be  used  on  the 
farm,  and  are  in  most  urgent  need  during  the  season  when  crops  are 
being  planted.  They  are  usually  of  mixed  breeding,  draft  blood  pre- 
dominating, and  are  commonly  known  among  farmers  as  "general-pur- 
pose" animals.  Mares  are  more  generally  taken  than  geldings.  For 
this  class,  low-set,  compact  horses  are  wanted,  not  so  heavy  as  the 
eastern  chunks.  Farm  chunks  are  usually  lighter  in  bone,  and  often 
slightly  blemished  or  unsound.  In  general,  the  typical  farm  chunk 
should  be  a  moderate-sized,  all-round  good  individual,  standing  from 
15  to  15-3  hands  high,  and  weighing  from  1,200  to  1,400  pounds.  Being 
lighter  horses  than  the  eastern  chunks,  they  should  be  a  little  quicker 
and  more  active.  The  varied  use  to  which  horses  are  put  on  farms 
requires  ability  to  trot  readily  if  necessary.  However,  since  the  walk 
is  their  most  important  gait,  they  should  be  good  walkers  and  do  it 
with  ease  and  rapidity. 

Southern  chunks. — In  some  markets  these  are  termed  "southern 
horses,"  or  "southerns."  They  are  small  horses  that  are  taken  by 
dealers  to  large  southern  cities  and  sold  to  southern  planters  for  tilling 
their  lands  and  for  driving  and  riding.  The  southern  farmer  does  not 
cultivate  deeply,  and  the  soils  are  light,  consequently  he  does  not  re- 
quire very  large  horses.  However,  each  year  the  trend  of  the  market 
is  for  larger  horses  for  this  trade.  Southern  chunks  are  small  horses 
standing  from  15  to  15-3  hands  high,  and  weighing  from  800  to  1,250 
pounds.  They  are  rather  fine  of  bone,  possessing  an  abundance  of 
quality,  and  are  more  rangy  in  conformation  than  any  of  the  other 
chunks,  having  more  of  the  light  horse  blood.  Many  of  them  are 
similar  to  the  cheaper  horses  used  on  the  light  delivery  wagons  of  cities. 
They  should  have  good  action.  The  southern  chunk  is  comparatively 
a  cheap  horse. 

Wagon  Horses 

These  are  horses  useful  for  quick  delivery.  The  demand  is  from 
cities  and  towns.  They  must  be  closely  coupled,  compactly  built, 
with  plenty  of  constitution  and  stamina.  They  must  be  good  actors, 
have  a  good,  clean  set  of  legs,  with  plenty  of  bone  and  quality,  and  a 
good  foot  that  will  stand  the  wear  of  paved  streets.  The  classes  are 
Express  Horses,  Delivery  Wagon  Horses,  Light  Artillery  Horses, 
Heavy  Artillery  Horses,  and  Fire  Horses.  Their  breeding  is  a  mixture 
of  draft  and  light  bloods.  They  are  neither  light  nor  heavy  horses, 
but  may  be  termed  middle-weights. 

Express  horses  are  used  by  express  companies  to  collect  and 
deliver  goods  to  and  from  railroad  stations.  Different  companies  use 
horses  of  slightly  different  size  and  weight.     For  instance,  if  the  busi- 


484  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

ness  of  a  company  is  centrally  located  in  a  city,  and  depots  are  not  far 
apart,  they  use  larger  horses  and  load  heavier;  if  the  business  is  done 
in  the  outlying  parts  of  a  city,  and  the  depots  are  a  considerable  distance 
apart,  lighter  horses  with  more  action  are  wanted.  They  are  used 
singly  or  in  pairs,  and  the  size  of  the  horse  will  depend  on  the  weight 
of  the  wagon.  The  lightest  ones  are  called  "money  horses,"  as  they 
are  hitched  to  the  lightest  wagons  to  deliver  valuables,  this  kind  of 
work  demanding  quick  service. 

The  typical  expresser  is  rather  upstanding,  deep  bodied,  and 
closely  coupled,  with  good  bone  and  an  abundance  of  quality,  energy, 
and  spirit.  He  should  stand  from  15-3  to  16-2  hands  high,  and  weigh 
from  1,350  to  1,500  pounds  in  good  flesh;  the  average  express  horse  is 


Fig.  185. — Express  horse.  This  horse  was  purchased  by  the  American  Rail- 
way Express  Company  as  a  six-year-old  in  1909.  When  photographed  in  March, 
1922,  he  had  been  in  steady  service  on  city  streets  for  13  years,  weighed  1,525  pounds, 
and  stood  16  hands  high. 

16  to  16-1  hands  high,  and  weighs  around  1,400  pounds  in  working 
condition.  His  head  should  be  neat,  his  neck  of  good  length,  and  his 
crest  well  developed.  His  shoulder  should  be  obliquely  set,  coupled 
with  a  short,  well  muscled  back  and  a  strong  loin.  His  croup  should 
be  broad,  rounding,  and  well  muscled,  his  quarters  deep,  and  thighs 
broad.  He  should  not  be  goose  rumped,  nor  cut  up  in  the  flank.  His 
underpinning  should  be  of  the  very  best,  his  cannons  broad  and  clean, 
and  his  hoofs  of  a  dense,  tough  horn. 

The  express  horse  is  required  to  do  his  work  both  at  the  walk  and 
trot,  the  latter  being  the  principal  gait.     He  should  be  quick  and 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  485 

active,  and  should  keep  his  feet  well  under  him  and  throw  enough 
weight  into  the  collar  to  move  a  heavy  load  at  the  walk,  or  a  lighter 
load  at  the  trot.  As  in  the  previous  classes,  he  should  be  a  straight- 
line  mover,  with  possibly  a  little  more  knee  and  hock  action. 

Delivery  wagon  horses  are  not  as  large  as  expressers,  and  not  as 
high-grade  animals;  most  mercantile  firms  are  not  such  liberal  buyers 
as  the  express  companies,  and  consequently  they  get  a  cheaper  grade 
of  horses.  However,  this  is  not  always  true,  as  some  of  the  large 
department  stores,  whose  deliveries  serve  as  an  advertisement,  will  pay 
more  for  the  very  best  than  express  companies,  thus  getting  very  choice 
animals.  The  conformation  requirements  are  practically  the  same  as 
for  express  horses,  except  they  are  not  quite  so  large,  standing  from  15 


Fig.  186. — Light  artillery  horse. 

to  16  hands,  and  weighing  from  1,100  to  1,400  pounds.  The  action 
requirements  are  the  same  as  for  express  horses,  though  some  are  not 
as  good  actors.  The  demand  for  delivery  wagon  horses  comes  from 
all  kinds  of  retail  and  wholesale  mercantile  houses,  such  as  meat  shops, 
milk  houses,  grocery  houses,  dry  goods  firms,  and  hardware  merchants, 
for  use  on  light  wagons  for  parcel  delivery.  Some  of  the  coarser, 
rougher  ones  are  used  on  the  huckster  wagons,  junk  wagons,  sand 
wagons,  and  by  contractors  for  cellar  excavating,  street  cleaning,  rail- 
road grading,  or  almost  any  kind  of  rough,  heavy  work. 

Light  artillery  horses  conform  rather  closely  to  the  better  grades 
of  delivery  wagon  horses  of  the  same  weight.  The  following  specifica- 
tions, prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  Quartermaster  General  of 
the  U.  S,  War  Department,  clearly  set  forth  the  requirements. 


486 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


"The  artillery  horse  for  light  and  horse  batteries  must  be  sound, 
well  bred,  of  a  superior  class,  and  have  quality;  of  a  kind  disposition, 
well  broken  to  harness,  and  gentle  under  the  saddle,  with  easy  mouth 
and  gaits,  and  free  and  prompt  action  at  the  walk,  trot,  and  gallop; 
free  from  vicious  habits;  and  otherwise  to  conform  to  the  following 
description:  A  gelding  of  specified  color  (no  white  or  gray  horses  will 
be  accepted),  and  in  good  condition,  from  5  to  8  years  old  at  time  of 
purchase;  height  from  15-2  to  16  hands;  weight  from  1,150  to  1,300 
pounds,  depending  on  height.  Horses  otherwise  satisfactory  which 
fall  short  of,  or  exceed,  these  limits  of  weight  by  not  more  than  50 
pounds,  due  to  temporary  conditions,  may  be  accepted. 


B 

i^^?<*ii  M^~ 

«^^^^ 

ijyEjj^K  1  f 

Fig.  187. — Heavy  artillery  horses. 

"The  artillery  horse  for  light  and  horse  batteries  is  required  for 
quick  draft  purposes,  and  should  be  heavy  enough  to  move  the  carriage 
ordinarily  by  weight  thrown  into  the  collar  rather  than  by  muscular 
exertion.  Long-legged,  loose-jointed,  long-bodied,  narrow-chested, 
coarse,  and  cold-blooded  horses,  as  well  as  those  which  are  restive, 
vicious,  or  too  free  in  harness,  will  be  rejected." 

Heavy  artillery  horses.— The  U.  S.  Army  specifications  for  artillery 
horses  for  siege  batteries  are  as  follows: 

"A  gelding  conforming  to  the  above  specifications  for  horses  for 
light  and  horse  batteries,  except  that  the  animal  should  be  from  16  to 
17  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  1,400  to  1,700  pounds,  depending  on 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


487 


height.  A  smart,  active,  draft  horse,  with  plenty  of  bone  and  sub- 
stance, and  enough  quality  to  insure  staying  power  in  fairly  fast  work, 
is  required  for  this  service." 

The  work  of  the  heavy  artillery  horse  is  much  heavier  and  slower 
than  that  of  the  light  artillery  horse,  and  the  type  demanded  in  the 
horse  is  quite  different.  Here  it  is  a  question  of  power  rather  than  of 
speed,  and  the  heavy  artillery  horse  is  in  fact  a  light  draft  horse,  though 
some  fall  somewhat  short  of  the  weight  desired  in  light  drafters.  Heavy 
artillery  horses  might  properly  be  classed  with  draft  or  chunk  horses, 
but  for  convenience  are  included  in  the  same  general  class  as  the  light 
artillery  horses. 

The  demand  for  artillery  horses  is  rather  spasmodic,  at  some  times 
being  much  greater  than  at  others.  Contracts  are  given  to  the  lowest 
responsible  bidder  to  supply  them  in  large  numbers  at  a  specified  time. 


Fig.  188.— Fire  horses. 

Because  of  the  rigid  examination  and  requirements  of  official  inspectors, 
some  men  have  lost  money  in  filling  contracts.  ^ 

The  fire  horse  is  more  rangy  in  conformation  than  the  expresser, 
he  being  required  to  throw  weight  into  the  collar  and  often  to  take 
long  runs.  The  requirements  are  very  rigid,  as  will  be  seen  by  the 
specifications  set  forth  by  Peter  F.  Quinn,  former  superintendent  of 
horses  of  the  Chicago  Fire  Department: 

"The  work  required  of  a  horse  best  suited  to  fire  department 
services  necessitates  almost  human  intelligence.  Such  a  horse  must 
not  only  be  well  bred,  sound  in  every  particular,  quick  to  observe, 
prompt  and  willing  to  respond  to  every  call,  but  as  well,  ambitious  to 


'During  the  World  War,  or  from  1914  to  1918  inclusive,  the  United  States 
exported  1,054,000  horses,  valued  at  $219,459,000,  and  357,255  mules,  valued  at 
$70,926,000. 


488  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

discharge  his  numerous  and  unusual  duties  under  constantly  differing 
surroundings.  In  selecting,  the  first  requisites  are  tractability,  good 
feet  and  legs,  with  bone  and  hoof  of  the  best  texture,  a  short,  strong 
back,  and  well-proportioned  fore  and  hindquarters,  well  covered  with 
firm,  elastic  muscles.  For  heavy  engine  companies  and  heavy  hook- 
and-ladder  trucks,  a  gelding  of  uniform  and  hardy  color,  in  good  condi- 
tion, from  5  to  7  years  old,  standing  16  to  17-2  hands,  and  weighing 
from  1,500  to  1,700  pounds  should  be  selected.  Hose-carriage  horses, 
same  age;  weight  from  1,200  to  1,400  pounds;  height,  15  to  16-2  hands." 
The  demand  for  fire  horses  is  very  limited,  coming  from  fire  com- 
panies of  cities.  There  are  usually  enough  horses  in  the  general  supply 
to  meet  the  demand. 

Carriage  Horses 

The  chapter  dealing  with  carriage  horse  type  presents  a  detailed 
description  of  the  general  class  known  as  carriage  horses,  and  while 
this  general  class  is  subdivided  into  four  classes  known  as  Coach,  Cob, 
Park,  and  Cab  Horses,  nevertheless  the  differences  between  them  relate 
mostly  to  size  and  weight,  and  much  the  same  conformation,  style, 
and  action  is  desired  in  each  of  them. 

Coach  horses  may  be  described  as  carriage  horses  of  large  size. 
They  should  stand  from  15-1  to  16-1  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  1,100 
to  1,250  pounds.  The  weight  is  not  so  important  as  the  size.  The 
essential  thing  is  to  get  a  horse  that  looks  right  before  the  large,  heavy 
vehicle  to  which  he  is  hitched,  such  as  the  park  drag,  body  break, 
road  coach,  and  brougham.  A  hearse  requires  black  horses  from  15-3 
to  16-1  hands  high,  weighing,  1,200  to  1,250,  and  without  white  mark- 
ings.    White  horses  are  also  used  to  some  extent  by  undertakers. 

Cobs  differ  from  coach  horses  in  size  and  in  the  use  to  which  they 
are  put.  They  are  driven  singly,  in  pairs,  or  tandem.  Cobs  stand 
from  14-1  to  15-1  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  900  to  1,150  pounds. 
The  strongest  demand  comes  for  horses  14-3  to  15  hands  high,  and 
weighing  from  1,000  to  1,100  pounds.  Being  essentially  a  lady's  horse, 
solid  colors  are  wanted,  without  flash  markings.  They  are  usually 
hitched  to  a  light  brougham  or  phaeton. 

The  park  horse,  sometimes  called  the  gig  horse,  is  a  carriage  horse 
of  medium  size,  and  he  is  a  higher-priced  horse  than  either  the  coach 
or  cob  horse.  He  has  the  same  conformation  and  action  as  they,  and 
there  may  be  no  difference  in  size  and  weight,  but  his  conformation  is 
more  perfect,  his  action  higher  and  more  sensational,  and  his  style  and 
elegance  more  outstanding.  Park  horses  are  hitched  to  a  cart  or  gig, 
or  may  be  driven  tandem  to  the  latter  vehicle.  They  are  also  driven 
in  pairs  before  mail  phaetons  and  victorias.     The  limits  for  height  and 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


489 


weight  are  15  to  15-3  hands  and  from  1,000  to  1,150  pounds,  the  most 
desirable  height  being  15-1  to  15-2  hands,  and  the  weight  from  1,000 
to  1,100  pounds. 

The  cab  horse  is  a  comparatively  cheap  horse,  and  the  require- 
ments are  not  so  rigid  as  for  coach,  cob,  or  park  horses.  They  are 
used  on  cabs,  coupes,  hansoms,  and  other  vehicles  for  public  service 
in  cities.  They  are  much  the  same  type  as  the  coach  horse,  in  fact 
many  of  them  are  the  discarded  and  lower  grades  of  the  coach  class. 
Cab  horses  stand  from  15-2  to  16-1  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  1,050 
to  1,200  pounds.  The  demand  comes  from  livery  and  transfer  com- 
panies. 


Fig.  189.— Runabout  horse. 


Road  Horses 

This  class  includes  Runabout  Horses  and  Roadsters.  Runabout 
horses  occupy  an  intermediate  place  between  typical  roadsters  and 
carriage  horses,  but  on  account  of  their  action,  conformation,  and  the 
use  to  which  they  are  put,  they  may  be  more  properly  classed  as  road 
horses. 

The  runabout  horse  is  a  rather  short-legged  horse,  standing  from 
14-3  to  15-2  hands  high,  and  weighing  from  900  to  1,050  pounds.  His 
head  should  be  neat,  ear  fine,  eye  large  and  mild,  neck  of  good  length 
and  trim  at  the  throttle.  The  neck  should  be  of  medium  weight,  not 
quite  so  heavy  as  that  of  the  coach  horse,  and  not  so  light  and  thin 
as  that  of  the  roadster.  The  shoulder  should  be  obliquely  set,  the 
withers  high  and  thin,  the  back  short,  well  muscled,  and  closely  coupled 


490  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

to  the  hips  by  a  short,  broad  loin.  The  barrel  should  be  deep  and 
round,  the  ribs  well  sprung,  and  the  chest  deep;  the  croup  should  be 
long  and  the  hips  nicely  rounded.  The  legs  should  be  well  placed  and 
heavily  muscled,  the  bone  broad  and  clean,  and  the  pasterns  of  good 
length  and  obliquely  set,  joined  to  well-shaped  feet.  The  runabout 
horse  is  not  quite  so  stockily  built  as  the  cob,  being  not  so  heavy  in 
neck  and  crest,  not  so  full  made  and  rotund  in  body,  and  not  so  heavy 
in  quarters.  The  action  is  more  moderate  than  that  of  a  cob;  he  does 
not  need  to  be  as  high  an  actor,  but  should  have  more  speed.  The 
action  should  be  bold,  frictionless,  and  straight,  such  as  is  conducive 
to  speed  and  beauty  of  form. 

The  demand  for  runabout  horses  is  for  single  drivers.  They  are 
used  in  cities  and  elsewhere  on  runabouts  and  driving  wagons.  They 
are  of  more  or  less  mixed  breeding,  Standardbred  breeding  predominat- 
ing. 

Roadsters. — The  chapter  dealing  with  light-harness  or  roadster 
type  sets  forth  the  requirements  for  roadsters  in  form,  action,  and  speed, 
and  discusses  the  uses  to  which  they  are  put.  No  further  discussion 
is  needed  here. 

Saddle  Horses 

The  saddle  horse  group  includes  the  five  classes  known  as  Five- 
Gaited  Saddlers,  Three-Gaited  Saddlers,  Hunters,  Cavalry  Horses,  and 
Polo  Ponies.  All  of  these  except  the  cavalry  horse  have  received  full 
consideration  under  the  subject  of  types  of  horses  in  preceding  chapters. 

Cavalry  horses. — The  Quartermaster  General  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment has  sent  out  the  following  specifications  as  the  requirements  for 
an  American  cavalry  horse: 

"Each  horse  will  be  subjected  to  a  rigid  inspection  and  any  animal 
that  does  not  meet  with  the  requirements  should  be  rejected.  No 
white  or  gray  horses  will  be  accepted.  The  mature  horse  must  be 
sound,  well  bred,  of  a  superior  class,  and  have  quality;  gentle  and  of  a 
kind  disposition;  well  broken  to  the  saddle,  with  light  and  elastic  mouth, 
easy  gaits,  and  free  and  prompt  action  at  the  walk,  trot,  and  gallop; 
free  from  vicious  habits;  and  otherwise  to  conform  to  the  following 
description:  A  gelding  of  specified  color,  in  good  condition,  from  5  to 
8  years  old  at  time  of  purchase;  weighing  from  950  to  1,200  pounds, 
depending  on  height,  which  should  be  from  15  to  16  hands." 

Cavalry  remounts  for  the  U.  S.  War  Department  are  purchased  as 
needed  through  contract  orders,  the  contract  being  let  to  the  lowest 
responsible  bidder.  In  filling  orders,  dealers  are  often  obliged  to  edu- 
cate many  of  the  recruits  to  the  saddle,  in  order  to  meet  the  specific 
requirements. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  491 

Miscellaneous  Horses 

Feeders  are  horses  thin  in  flesh  which  are  purchased  to  be  put  in 
condition  and  resold.  They  may  belong  to  any  of  the  above  classes, 
but  the  practice  is  more  generally  applied  to  draft  horses,  chunks,  and 
wagon  horses.  The  old  adage,  "a  little  fat  covers  a  multitude  of 
defects,"  is  still  true;  the  value  of  flesh  when  put  on  thin  horses  can 
hardly  be  appreciated,  unless  one  has  seen  them  fleshed  and  placed 
again  on  the  market. 

Range  horses. — During  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  there  may  be 
found  on  the  mafket  horses  bred  and  reared  on  the  range,  commonly 
known  as  "range  horses."  They  are  divided  into  two  general  classes, 
light  and  heavy^  according  to  the  predominance  of  light  or  draft  horse 


Fig.  190.— Cavalry  horse. 

blood.  For  the  sale  ring,  each  of  these  classes  is  divided  into  carlots 
as  follows:  "colts,"  meaning  weanlings;  "ones,"  the  yearlings;  "twos," 
the  two-year-olds;  "dry  stuff,"  the  three-year-olds  and  over,  those  not 
suckling  foals;  and  "mares  and  colts,"  the  brood  mares  with  foals  at 
foot.  In  the  auction  ring,  the  price  is  stated  per  head  and  the  buyer 
takes  the  entire  lot.  Most  of  the  range  horses  find  their  way  to  the 
country,  where  they  are  usually  broken;  when  educated,  they  may  be 
returned  to  the  market  and  may  fill  the  demand  for  some  of  the  com- 
mercial classes. 

Ponies  of  various  grades  and  breeding  are  frequently  found  on  the 
market,  and  are  usually  bought  for  the  use  of  children  and  ladies.  The 
characteristics  distinguishing  ponies  from  horses  are  not  easily  de- 
scribed.    The  principal  distinguishing  feature  is  that  of  height,  a  pony 


492  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

being  14  hands  or  under.  But  there  are  dwarf  horses  that  do  not  have 
pony  blood  or  characteristics  that  come  within  these  limits.  Other 
pony  characteristics  are  a  deep  body  with  rounding  barrel,  heavily 
muscled  thighs  and  quarters,  croup  not  drooping,  and  width  well 
carried  out,  all  of  which  the  small  horse  does  not  usually  possess.  The 
neck  is  often  short  and  heavy,  though  this  is  not  a  desirable  quality. 
Ponies  are  essentially  children's  horses,  and  they  must  be  kind  and 
gentle  in  disposition,  with  as  much  spirit  as  is  compatible  for  their  use. 
There  are  no  special  requirements  for  weight,  the  limits  being  quite 
wide.  They  should  be  straight-line  movers,  and  the  more  knee  and 
hock  action  they  possess,  the  higher  prices  they  will  bring,  other  things 
being  equal.   The  Indian  pony,  or  "cayuse  '  as  he  is  sometimes  called, 


Fig.  191. — High-class  pony.  King  Larigo,  champion  Shetland  pony  stallion  at 
a  large  number  of  the  leading  shows  in  recent  years.  Owned  by  George  A.  Heyl, 
Washington,  111. 

is  larger;  he  is  a  descendant  of  the  native  range  stock,  and  is  classed 
on  the  market  as  a  range  pony. 

Plugs  are  worn-out,  decrepit  horses  with  but  little  value.  This 
class  is  too  well  known  to  need  description. 

Weeds  are  leggy  and  ill-proportioned  horses  lacking  in  the  essen- 
tial qualities,  such  as  constitution  and  substance.  They  have  little 
value  for  service  of  any  kind. 

Prices  for  Horses  at  Chicago 
Prices  of  the  various  classes  compared. — Prices  during  1922  aver- 
aged as  follows  upon  the  Chicago  market,  figures  for  preceding  years 
being  given  for  comparison :  ^ 


'Drovers  Journal  Year  Books  of  Figures. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  493 

Class  1922     1921     1920    1915     1913 

Draft  horses $175  $185  $200  $203  $213 

Farm  chunks 90  90  100  88  98 

Express  horses 150  160  170  175  185 

Delivery  wagon  horses 135  140  155  175  175 

Carriage  horses  (pairs) (  M  ( ' )  (' )  473  493 

Drivers (M  135  145  164  174 

Saddle  horses,  medium  quality 135  145  165  175  184 

Saddle  horses,  good  to  choice 275  280  290  290  295 

'  No  report. 

The  above  is  a  rather  incomplete  report,  but  it  is  all  that  is  avail- 
able. The  total  value  of  all  horses  received  at  Chicago  in  1922  was 
$4,753,350,  and  their  average  value  was  $150.  The  average  was  $185 
in  1917,  $180  in  1916,  $180  in  1915,  $183  in  1914,  $188  in  1913,  and 
$179  in  1912.  In  connection  with  these  figures  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  many  of  the  best  loads  of  horses  from  the  corn  belt  are  taken 
directly  to  the  eastern  cities  for  sale,  being  gathered  by  country  buyers 
who  consign  them  to  eastern  dealers. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 

HORSE  BREEDING 

The  following  figures  reported  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture show  the  rank  of  the  leading  countries  in  numbers  of  horses: 

Numbers  of  horses  in  leading  countries 

Country  Year  Total  horses 

1.  Russia 1921 23,670,000 

2.  United  States 1923 20,559,000  » 

3.  Siberia 1913 11,959,000 

4.  Argentina 1920 9,293,000 

5.  Brazil 1916 6,065,000 

6.  Canada 1921 3,814,000 

7.  Germany 1921 3,683,000 

8.  Poland 1921 3,187,000 

9.  France 1920 2,542,000 

10.  Australia 1920 2,414,000 

11.  India 1920 1,976,000 

12.  Great  Britain 1921 1,903,000 

World  total 100,524,000  ^ 

1  Includes  the  estimated  number  on  farms  on  January  1,  1923,  and  1,706,000  not  on  farms  as  re- 
ported by  the  1920  census. 

2U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  p.  680.  Includes  3,825,000  designated  as  "horses,  mules,  and 
asses,"  or  "mules  and  asses,"  or  "horses  and  mules." 

The  distribution  of  horses  in  the  United  States  is  shown  by  the 
numbers  in  the  leading  states  and  in  the  various  geographical  divisions, 
as  estimated  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture: 

Leading  states  in  numbers  of  horses  on  farms,  January  1,  1923 

Average  Average 

State  Number         value  State  Number       value 

1.  Iowa 1,305,000  $79.00  6.  Minnesota 887,000  $77.00 

2.  Illinois 1,183,000  70.00  7.  Missouri 870,000  52.00 

3.  Kansas 1,019,000  45.00  8.  North  Dakota 797,000  56.00 

4.  Texas 971,000  53.00  9.  Ohio 771,000  93.00 

5.  Nebraska 901,000  58.00  10.  South  Dakota 760,000  52.00 

The  estimated  average  value  of  all  horses  in  the  United  States 
on  January  1,  1923,  was  $69.75. 

Distribution  of  horses  on  farms  by  geographical  divisions  on  January  1, 1923 

Division  Number 

North  Atlantic  Division 1,389,000 

South  Atlantic  Division 966,000 

North  Central,  East  of  Mississippi  River 3,887,000 

North  Central,  West  of  Mississippi  River 6,539,000 

South  Central  Division 3,127,000 

Far  Western  Division 2,945,000 

Total 18,853,000 

494 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


495 


The  number  of  horses  "not  on  farms"  in  the  United  States  declined 
from  3,183,000  on  April  15,  1910,  to  1,706,000  on  January  1,  1920,  as 
reported  by  the  census. 

Average  life  of  work  horse.— The  Horse  Association  of  America  ^ 
estimates  as  a  result  of  its  investigations  that  horses  and  mules  on 
farms,  going  into  service  as  three-year-olds,  have  an  average  period  of 
service  of  12  years.  Horses  and  mules  not  on  farms  (horses  used  in 
cities  and  towns,  and  by  lumber  men,  mine  owners,  contractors,  etc.), 
going  into  service  as  six-year-olds,  are  estimated  to  remain  in  service 
for  an  average  of  9  years.  For  all  horses  and  mules  that  reach  working 
age,  the  average  duration  of  life  is  therefore  15  years.  The  Association 
also  reports  that  the  death  rate  in  young  stock  "between  the  time  they 


)^ 

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Fig.  192. — Distribution  of  horses  two  years  old  or  over  in  the  United  States. 

are  6  to  8  months  old  and  the  time  they  are  36  months  old,  is  about 
5  per  cent  per  year,  or  a  loss  of  one  colt  out  of  each  twenty,  in  their 
yearling  and  two-year-old  seasons  respectively." 

According  to  these  figures,  one-twelfth  of  working  animals  on 
farms  and  one-ninth  of  working  animals  not  on  farms  must  be  replaced 
annually  in  order  to  maintain  the  total  number  of  work  animals  in 
use.  Replacement  must  come  from  the  annual  crop  of  foals.  A  num- 
ber of  foals  are  lost  before  6  or  8  months  of  age,  and  10  per  cent  of  the 
remainder  die  before  reaching  three  years  of  age.  The  foal  crop  of  a 
given  year  less  10  per  cent  gives  the  probable  number  available  at  three 
years  of  age  to  replace  losses  among  work  animals.     Applying  this 


1  Leaflet  57,  Horse  Association  of  America,  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  IH. 


496  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

method  to  the  1920  census  figures  we  find  a  probable  loss  of  1,911,727 
work  animals  by  death  in  that  year,  and  a  probable  replacement  from 
the  foals  of  1919  of  only  1,428,764  head,  leaving  a  deficit  of  482,963 
head. 

Horse  production  on  the  small  farm. — The  advantages  of  intensive 
farming  have  been  widely  discussed  for  a  number  of  years.  Intensive 
farming  is  farming  on  a  small  scale,  but  doing  it  perfectly,  hence 
realizing  the  largest  possible  return  on  a  moderate  investment.  Horse 
production  on  a  small  scale,  as  discussed  here,  is  similar  to  intensive 
farming.  It  means  the  ownership  of  one  or  two  pairs  of  high-class 
brood  mares,  preferably  purebreds,  which  are  used  to  do  part  or  all  of 
the  farm  work,  and  which  are  given  the  very  best  care  and  attention. 
They  are  bred  only  to  high-class  stallions  of  the  same  breed  as  them- 
selves, and  during  pregnancy  they  are  well  cared  for,  well  fed,  and  not 
overworked.  The  foals  are  given  the  best  of  care  and  are  carefully 
trained,  being  halter  broken  as  early  as  possible  and  made  gentle  by 
proper  handling.  They  are  kept  growing  after  they  are  weaned,  and 
in  due  time  are  carefully  and  thoroughly  educated  in  harness  or  under 
saddle,  as  the  case  may  be.     This  is  intensive  horse  production. 

Intensive  horse  raising  therefore  means  keeping  a  few  extra-good 
brood  mares,  and  each  year  producing  a  few  extra-good  foals  which 
may  be  grown  out  by  the  breeder  or  sold  as  weanlings  or  yearlings  to 
be  developed  by  someone  else.  The  first  costs  under  this  plan  are  not 
necessarily  less  than  where  a  large  number  of  the  average  kind  of  brood 
mares  are  kept.  Good  brood  mares  cost  considerable,  but  they  are 
the  only  kind  on  which  large  profits  may  be  made.  If  this  plan  seems 
impracticable  because  purebred  mares  are  expensive,  why  not  reach 
the  same  end  by  buying  a  weanling  or  yearling  filly  of  the  desired  breed, 
growing  out  this  filly  to  breeding  age,  and  retaining  her  best  filly  fcals 
for  breeding  purposes?  In  this  way,  given  a  few  years'  time,  it  is 
easily  possible  to  get  on  an  intensive  footing  with  as  many  mares  as 
are  required. 

We  have  had  enough  of  the  average  kind  of  horse  production  in 
this  country;  in  fact,  far  too  much  of  it.  It  has  been  demonstrated 
beyond  all  doubt  that  it  pays  much  better  to  keep  a  few  extra-good 
brood  mares  and  raise  carefully  a  few  good  foals,  than  it  does  to  keep 
a  lot  of  cheap  mares  and  produce  a  lot  of  cheap  horses,  without  feed 
enough  to  give  any  of  them  a  fair  chance. 

The  writer  once  visited  a  farm  where  he  was  shown  a  sixteen-year- 
old  grade  draft  mare  of  good  type  and  individuality.  On  the  same 
farm  were  five  good  mares,  all  out  of  the  aged  mare  mentioned.  Other 
of  her  numerous  offspring  had  been  sold  at  good  prices.  The  mare  had 
made  the  farmer  money  and  was  still  making  it,  for  at  the  time  of  this 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


497 


visit  she  had  a  fine  filly  foal  by  her  side.  But  the  owner  was  not 
satisfied.  "Think  how  much  more  money  I  would  have  made,"  said 
he,  "if  I  had  begun  with  a  registered  purebred  mare.  If  the  old  mare 
had  been  purebred  and  registered,  the  value  of  every  one  of  her  foals 
would  have  been  easily  doubled,  and  it  wouldn't  have  cost  a  cent 
more  to  raise  them."  The  lesson  to  the  young  breeder  is  clear,^start 
right,  even  if  it  means  starting  slowly  by  buying  one  young  registered 
filly,  and  from  her  building  up  a  breeding  stud  of  fine  mares. 

The  farms  of  the  Middle  West  and  East  are  well  adapted  to  the 
intensive  plan  of  horse  production,  because  most  of  the  farms  are  not 


Fig.  193.— Excellent  type  in  the  draft  stallion.  Fyvie  Baiui.,  ^i^unpion 
Clydesdale  stallion  at  the  International,  owned  by  Conyngham  Brothers,  Wilkes- 
barre.  Pa.  Note  his  masculinity,  quality,  style,  correct  position  of  legs,  nice  pas- 
terns, and  good  feet. 


large,  and  usually  the  teaming  is  done  by  the  owner  himself,  or  by  one 
or  two  hands  who  are  always  under  close  observation.  On  big  farms, 
with  incompetent  and  everchanging  help,  if  valuable  brood  mares  are 
kept,  they  are  liable  to  be  injured  if  used  to  do  the  farm  work.  The 
plan  should  call  for  working  the  brood  mares,  but  not  working  them 
as  hard  as  geldings  or  mules.  Let  them  earn  their  board,  and  board 
them  well.  They  may  be  worked  well  up  to  foaling  time  if  care  is 
taken  not  to  back  them  to  a  heavy  load,  or  put  them  to  a  hard  strain. 


498  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Mares  have  been  hurriedly  unhitched  and  unharnessed  while  cultivat- 
ing corn  or  doing  some  other  moderate  work,  and  have  foaled  thrifty, 
well-developed  foals,  the  equal  of  any.  But  such  mares  have  been 
well  fed  and  cared  for  during  pregnancy,  and  they  should  be  given  as 
long  a  vacation  on  pasture  after  foaling  as  the  farm  work  will  permit. 
The  most  profitable  horse  breeding  in  France,  Belgium,  England, 
Scotland,  and  America  is  done  on  the  intensive  plan,  on  farms  of  moder- 
ate or  small  size,  by  farmers  who  are  good  practical  horsemen  with  a 


Fig.  194. — The  Percheron  stallion  Jalap,  owned  by  Iowa  State  College.  He 
has  a  superb  head,  neck,  and  shoulder,  an  evenly  moulded  top,  faultless  coupling, 
well-placed  legs,  and  large  clean  bone  and  joints.  A  very  masculine  type  with  style 
and  quality;  a  highly  successful  sire. 

taste  for  doing  things  well.  There  is  ample  room  in  the  United  States 
for  much  more  horse  raising  on  this  plan,  and  we  have  always  had  too 
many  inferior  mares,  too  many  cheap  stallions,  and  too  many  cheap 
horses  hunting  buyers. 

Choosing  a  type  to  breed. — What  type  of  horse  shall  the  farmer 
breed?    The  answer  depends  upon  how  much  capital  is  available  to 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  499 

put  into  the  business,  upon  the  personal  qualifications  of  the  breeder, 
and  also  upon  his  personal  preference  as  to  type.  To  some  extent, 
the  choice  will  depend  upon  the  location  of  the  farm,  and  upon  the 
crops  that  can  be  grown.  It  will  ordinarily  require  more  capital  to 
engage  in  the  breeding  of  light  horses  than  in  the  breeding  of  draft 
horses.  Light  horses  especially  require  more  expensive  equipment  to 
accomplish  the  training  and  finishing  without  which  they  sell  at  com- 
paratively moderate  prices.  Because  of  temperament  and  disposition, 
some  men  are  more  successful  with  one  type  of  horse  than  another. 
The  man  who  intends  to  engage  in  the  breeding  of  horses  should  ask 
himself  the  following  questions  regarding  any  or  all  types  he  may  have 
under  consideration:  1.  Am  I  familiar  enough  with  the  type  and  the 
methods  of  its  production  to  know  what  I  am  striving  to  produce  and 
how  to  produce  it?     2.     Provided  I  can  produce  the  type  successfully, 


Fig.  195. — A  noted  sire  and  his  get.  Undefeated  Belgian  stallion,  Farceur, 
and  eight  of  his  get,  all  winners.  This  group  includes  a  number  of  first  prize  winners 
and  champions  at  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition,  International,  and  Iowa  State 
Fair.  All  owned  by  William  Crownover,  Hudson,  Iowa.  Farceur  was  sold  in  1917 
to  C.  G.  Good,  Ogden,  Iowa. 

how  can  I  dispose  of  my  animals,  and  what  are  the  chances  of  realizing 
full  value  for  my  stock?  3.  Are  my  buildings,  fences,  land,  and  crops 
adapted  to  the  production  of  horses,  and  if  not,  can  I  remedy  the  short- 
comings? 

Advantage  of  draft  type. — In  the  majority  of  cases,  the  best  type 
for  the  farmer  to  produce  is  the  draft  horse.  It  has  many  advantages. 
The  brood  mares  are  much  better  suited  to  do  the  work  of  the  farm 
than  are  any  of  the  light  horse  types.  Practically  no  special  training 
is  needed  to  make  the  drafter  ready  for  market,  and  he  is  marketable 
at  a  younger  age  than  is  ordinarily  true  of  the  types  of  light  horses. 
If  he  is  kept  free  from  wire  cuts  and  other  blemishes,  and  is  fat  and 


500  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

well  groomed  when  offered  for  sale,  he  should  realize  full  value.  The 
carriage  horse  or  saddler,  on  the  other  hand,  requires  months  of  hand- 
ling in  order  to  give  him  a  good  mouth  and  develop  his  action  or  gaits, 
as  the  case  may  be.  Furthermore,  a  wire  cut  or  other  blemish  is  much 
more  serious  with  these  types  than  with  the  drafter.  They  require 
more  care  and  attention  from  birth  to  selling  time,  and  require  a  greater 
age  to  finish  them  for  market.  It  is  also  true  that  there  are  fewer 
misfits  in  breeding  draft  horses  than  with  any  other  type  of  horse,  in 
other  words,  results  are  more  certain  and  sure.  The  production  of 
draft  horses  fits  into  general  farminsr  better  than  the  production  of 


Fig.  196.— The  Belgian  stallion  Farceur's  King,  a  three-year-old  son  of  Farceur 
owned  by  the  University  of  Minnesota.  Junior  and  reserve  champion  at  the  Iowa 
State  Fair  and  International  Belgian  Show  in  1922.  Note  the  draftiness,  quality, 
and  style  of  this  colt,  his  good  head  and  neck,  round  middle,  well-set  legs,  large  clean 
bone  and  joints,  and  good  feet. 

any  of  the  light  horse  types.  For  these  various  reasons,  the  draft 
horse  is  of  greatest  interest  to  most  farmers,  and  is  most  frequently 
selected  by  farmers  who  take  up  horse  breeding. 

Light  types  require  greater  skill. — Let  it  be  understood,  however, 
that  the  foregoing  arguments  are  not  intended  to  discourage  the  breed- 
ing of  types  other  than  the  drafter.  The  point  is  that  carriage,  saddle, 
and  roadster  horses  are  more  difficult  to  produce  than  drafters,  and 
but  few  persons,  comparatively,  are  qualified  to  breed  them  success- 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  501 

fully.  The  production  of  light  horses  requires  a  higher  order  of  skill 
both  in  breeding  and  salesmanship  than  does  the  production  of  the 
draft  horse,  and  when  this  is  supplied,  light  horse  breeding  is  a  profit- 
able enterprise.  Hence  the  selection  of  the  type  to  breed  should  be 
governed  largely  by  the  ability  of  the  man  who  is  to  supervise  the  breed- 
ing, provided,  of  course,  he  is  to  work  under  conditions  not  unfavorable 
to  the  type  he  is  best  qualified  to  produce. 

Perhaps  in  no  other  field  have  so  many  breeders  found  themselves 
mistaken  regarding  their  abilities  as  in  the  breeding  of  the  trotting 
horse.  This  type  appeals  strongly  to  the  majority  of  Americans,  and 
many  farmers  and  others  have  believed  that  they  knew  a  safe  and  sure 
system  of  breeding  for  speed.  Even  in  the  best  of  hands,  the  breeding 
of  trotters  is  very  doubtful  as  to  results,  and  only  a  small  percentage 
of  the  foals  ever  attain  anything  noteworthy  on  the  turf.  Speed  is  an 
elusive  quality  dependent  on  such  a  rare  combination  of  good  qualities 
in  the  animal  as  to  make  results  in  breeding  very  uncertain,  and  it 
should  be  understood  that  only  a  few  men  possess  the  special  qualifica- 
tions necessary  to  success  in  breeding  this  type  of  horse,  and  that  only 
the  wealthy,  who  are  willing  to  accept  the  pleasure  and  fascination  of 
the  undertaking  as  partial  remuneration  for  the  capital  invested,  can 
ordinarily  afford  to  take  up  this  difficult  art.  A  few  men  of  moderate 
means  have  made  a  success  with  trotters  by  selling  yearlmgs  as  "pros- 
pects," to  be  developed  in  the  hands  of  someone  else,  but  even  this 
method  is  uncertain  as  to  results  financially. 

Pony  breeding  offers  a  good  field  for  profit  to  those  who  are  in  a 
position  to  reach  the  trade  for  Shetland,  Welsh,  or  Hackney  ponies. 
The  breeding  of  polo  ponies,  however,  is  as  yet  a  very  uncertain  under- 
taking comparable  to  breeding  trotters. 

Selecting  a  breed. — After  the  type  of  horse  has  been  chosen,  it  is 
next  in  order  to  decide  what  breed  of  that  type  shall  be  selected.  The 
choice  of  a  breed  is  not  so  serious  or  important  a  matter  as  the  selec- 
tion of  a  type  or  the  selection  of  the  individuals  which  are  to  compose 
the  stud.  It  will  depend  largely  upon  the  personal  fancy  of  the  breeder, 
although  in  some  types  of  horses  in  certain  localities,  one  breed  may  be 
so  much  liked  or  another  breed  so  much  disliked  as  to  make  it  advisable 
for  the  new  breeder  to  conform  to  the  choice  of  the  community,  if  it 
is  possible  to  do  so.  He  can  then  profit  from  the  experience  and  advice 
of  his  neighbors,  he  will  benefit  from  a  greater  number  of  local  sales 
of  his  stock,  and  there  will  be  more  stallions  to  select  among  when 
mating  his  mares.  Communities  noted  for  the  production  of  many 
good  horses  of  a  certain  type  or  breed  attract  buyers  from  a  distance. 

Selecting  the  individuals. — We  now  come  to  the  matter  of  select- 
ing the  individuals  which  are  to  compose  the  stud.     First  of  all,  they 


502 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


must  be  sound;  and  this  is  a  matter  to  which  many  farmers  pay  too 
Httle  attention.  Buyers  offer  the  best  prices  for  sound  stock,  and  the 
farmer  has  too  frequently  sold  his  young  mares  that  were  sound,  and 
has  retained  those  with  sidebones,  ringbones,  spavins,  curbs,  etc.,  for 
breeding  purposes.  This  is  radically  wrong  and  a  very  short-sighted 
practice.  Soundness  is  of  very  vital  importance  in  every  type  of  horse, 
and  especially  in  animals  used  for  breeding  purposes.  The  individuals 
should  also  be  true  representatives  of  the  tj^e  to  which  they  belong. 
Whether  or  not  the  brood  mares  should  be  purebred  depends  on  the 


Fig.  197. — Correct  type  in  the  draft  mare.  Coldham  Surprise,  champion 
Shire  mare  at  the  International,  owned  by  George  M.  McCray,  Fithian,  111.  Note 
her  roomy  middle,  faultless  top  line,  symmetrical  form,  abundant  muscling,  and  large 
bone.  She  has  size,  ruggedness,  and  strength  combined  with  quality  and  feminine 
character. 


amount  of  capital  available  and  on  the  type  of  horse  selected.  If 
possible,  it  is  preferable  that  they  be  purebred,  registered  mares.  How- 
ever, some  very  profitable  work  in  producing  drafters  for  the  market 
has  been  done  with  good  grade  draft  mares.  In  such  cases,  these 
mares  have  shown  excellent  draft  type,  even  though  they  were  not 
eligible  to  registry.  Registered  purebred  draft  mares  cost  considerably 
more  to  buy,  but  have  the  very  great  advantage  of  having  their  foals 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


503 


eligible  to  registry,  and  hence  of  greater  market  value.  In  breeding 
carriage,  saddle,  and  roadster  horses,  it  is  essential  in  most  cases  that 
purebred  mares  be  used. 

Well-developed  feminine  character  and  a  good  disposition  are  fun- 
damental qualities  in  a  brood  mare,  as  such  mares  are  usually  more 
regular  breeders,  better  mothers,  and  more  easily  handled  and  worked 
than  are  mares  of  masculine  appearance  or  mean,  vicious,  or  highly 
nervous  disposition.  The  brood  mare  should  have  a  long  underline, 
and  a  deep,  full-made,  roomy  middle. 

Well-developed  draft  fillies  may  be  bred  when  two  years  old; 
others  should  not  be  bred  until  three  years  old.     The  duration  of 


Fig.  198.-  rercheruM  bruud  la-.r^c  .;.  harness  aL  tiie  Ur.ivLrsity  uf  Illinois. 
Prof.  J.  L.  Edmonds  states  that  they  are  "good,  medium-sized  mares,  11  and  12  years 
old,  good  workers,  and  good  producers."     Tractors  cannot  compete  with  these. 

pregnancy  in  mares  is  quite  variable,  but  averages  about  340  days. 
A  two-year-old  stallion  may  breed  8  or  10  mares  in  the  season,  a  three- 
year-old  from  25  to  30,  and  a  four-year-old  from  40  to  50.  The  breed- 
ing season  lasts  from  100  to  115  days,  and  it  is  important  not  to  use 
the  stallion  too  heavily  at  any  time.  A  two-year-old  may  safely  be 
allowed  to  cover  one  mare  every  five  days;  a  three-year-old,  three  a 
week;  a  four-year-old,  three  every  two  days;  and  a  mature  horse  should 
be  limited  usually  to  two  covers  daily,  and  perhaps  occasionally  he 
may  make  three. 


504  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

A  sound,  purebred  stallion  that  is  true  to  type  and  a  good  in- 
dividual in  every  way  is  the  only  kind  worthy  of  patronage.  If  there 
is  no  such  horse  in  the  community,  it  will  pay  to  ship  the  mares  a  long 
distance  to  reach  such  a  one.  If  possible,  it  is  always  best  to  patronize 
a  stallion  that  has  proved  himself  a  sure  breeder  and  a  getter  of  good 
foals.  There  would  not  be  the  great  number  of  unsound,  mongrel,  and 
inferior  stallions  standing  for  public  service  if  there  did  not  exist  a 
demand  for  them  on  the  part  of  mare  owners.  There  can  be  only  one 
explanation  so  far  as  the  owner  of  the  mare  is  concerned,  and  that  is 
the  saving  in  the  amount  of  the  service  fee;  but  no  more  short-sighted 
practice  can  be  followed,  it  having  been  demonstrated  in  almost  every 
community  that  the  added  value  of  the  foal  from  a  high-class  stallion, 
as  compared  with  the  foal  by  a  cheap  horse,  repays  the  extra  service 
fee  many  times  over.  It  costs  little  more  to  raise  a  good  foal  than  an 
inferior  one,  and  the  foal  by  the  cheap  stallion  is  not  ordinarily  a  profit- 
maker.  So  many  breeders  have  shown  a  lack  of  judgment  in  this 
matter,  and  horse  stocks  have  deteriorated  to  such  an  extent  in  some 
states  on  account  of  the  large  number  of  mares  bred  to  cheap  horses, 
that  stallion  laws  have  been  enacted  which  debar  unsound  stallions 
from  public  service,  and  require  that  placards  be  posted  on  the  stable 
door  telling  whether  the  stallion  is  a  purebred,  crossbred,  grade,  or 
mongrel.  Every  state  needs  a  law  of  this  kind,  modified  to  suit  its 
needs.  ^ 

Results  of  careless  breeding. — Another  evil  in  need  of  remedy  is 
the  too  common  practice  of  mixing  the  types  of  horses.  Heavy  mares 
are  mated  with  trotting  stallions  in  order  to  produce  an  animal  for 
road  use,  or  with  no  particular  idea  in  the  mind  of  the  mare  owner 
except  to  "get  a  colt."  Light-weight,  light-boned  mares,  without  any 
semblance  of  draft  qualities,  are  mated  with  draft  stallions  in  the  hope 
of  getting  a  draft  foal,  or  again  simply  to  "get  a  colt."  The  results  of 
such  breeding  are  to  be  seen  on  every  hand  in  the  country,  and  a  visit 
to  any  large  horse  market  reveals  the  fact  that  a  large  percentage  of 
the  animals  offered  for  sale  are  of  no  particular  type  or  market  class, 
because  they  have  a  variegated  ancestry,  the  result  of  indiscriminate 
crossing  of  heavy  and  light  horses.  One  is  at  a  loss  sometimes  to 
know  by  what  method  some  market  offerings  were  produced.     The 


iThe  1920  census  reported  that  only  0.6  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  horses 
on  farms  on  January  1,  1920,  were  registered  purebreds.  This  included  94,280 
registered  purebred  draft  horses,  10,542  registered  purebred  light  horses,  and  16,718 
other  registered  purebred  horses,  including  ponies. 

The  ten  leading  states  in  numbers  of  registered  purebred  draft  horses  were: 
Iowa  13,676,  Illinois  13,128,  Kansas  7,391,  Ohio  6,471,  North  Dakota  5,299,  Nebraska 
5,098,  South  Dakota  4,959,  Indiana  4,491,  Minnesota  4,093,  and  Montana  3,307. 

The  five  leading  states  in  numbers  of  registered  purebred  light  horses  were: 
Kentucky  1,967,  Illinois  990,  Virginia  687,  Missouri  532,  and  Kansas  477. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


505 


result  is  a  lot  of  cheap  horses  adapted  to  no  particular  work,  which  net 
the  producer  a  loss  in  most  cases  and  seldom  yield  a  profit.  Breeders 
must  learn  to  stick  to  type.  The  experiences  of  all  successful  horse 
breeders  teach  no  other  lesson  more  forcibly  than  this. 

Pedigree  not  always  an  indication  of  merit. — In  the  minds  of 
many  people,  the  words  "purebred,"  "registered,"  and  "imported" 
have  a  charm  much  greater  than  they  deserve.     Far  too  often,  glaring 


Fig.  199. — ^Two-year-old  Percheron  fillies  owned  by  the  University  of  Illinois. 

faults  of  individuality  or  even  serious  unsoundness  are  passed  with 
light  criticism  because  the  animal  in  question  is  eligible  to  one  or  more 
of  these  fascinating  names.  After  all,  one  must  conclude  that  there 
is  something  in  a  name.  It  is  a  fact  that  some  purebred  horses  are 
practically  worthless  for  breeding  purposes.  If  an  animal  is  purebred 
and  registered,  its  value  is  very  greatly  increased,  provided  it  is  a  good 
individual  of  useful  type;  but  if  the  animal  is  decidedly  faulty  in  con- 


506  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

formation,  or  has  serious  unsoundness,  its  pedigree  and  registration 
number  are  of  small  account,  and  the  animal  is  of  little  or  no  value  for 
breeding  purposes. 

Feed  and  care. — Every  successful  breeder  is  a  good  feeder  and 
caretaker,  for  no  matter  how  excellent  the  ancestry  of  a  foal  may  be, 
its  inherited  good  qualities  cannot  reveal  themselves  unless  the  foal  is 
provided  with  good  quarters  and  plenty  of  the  right  feed  with  which 
to  build  up  and  grow.  Feed  and  care  are  fully  as  important  as  parent- 
age in  producing  good  horses. 

Summary. — In  conclusion,  therefore,  follow  the  intensive  rather 
than  the  extensive  plan  of  horse  production;  select  the  type  to  breed 
after  careful  study  of  the  situation;  select  sound  individuals  possessing 
a  high  degree  of  individual  excellence;  breed  to  a  strictly  high-class, 
purebred  stallion,  regardless  of  the  amount  of  his  service  fee;  if  there 
is  no  such  stallion  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  ship  the  mares 
whatever  distance  is  necessary  to  reach  a  high-class  horse;  patronize  a 
tried  and  proven  sire  if  possible;  stick  to  a  definite  line  of  breeding— do 
not  mix  the  types  indiscriminately;  raise  a  class  of  foals  that  merit 
plenty  of  good  feed  and  care,  and  supply  the  same;  be  conservative  in 
your  judgment  and  appreciative  of  the  fact  that  the  breeding  of  horses 
is  an  enterprise  which  repays  careful  study  of  all  departments  of  the 
business. 


CHAPTER  XXXVITI 
THE  MULE 

The  various  breeds  of  the  ass  belong  to  one  species  known  as 
Equus  asinus.  The  various  breeds  of  the  horse  belong  to  a  distinct 
species  known  as  Equus  cahallus.  The  male  ass  is  called  a  "jack," 
and  the  female  a  "jennet."  The  cross  of  a  jack  on  a  mare  produces 
a  hybrid  known  as  a  "mule."  The  cross  of  a  stallion  on  a  jennet  pro- 
duces a  hybrid  known  as  a  "hinny."  Although  it  is  often  stated  that 
the  hinny  and  mule  differ  in  appearance,  the  hinny  tending  to  be  more 
like  a  horse  and  the  mule  tending  more  toward  the  type  of  a  jack, 
there  is  no  difference  in  type  and  appearance  between  them.  Very 
few  hinnies  are  produced,  as  jennets  are  in  such  demand  for  producing 
jacks  that  they  are  seldom  bred  to  stallions.  Mules  and  hinnies  do 
not  breed,  being  infertile.  As  the  saying  goes,  "the  mule  has  no  pride 
of  ancestry,  and  no  hope  of  posterity." 

The  ass  has  no  foretop  and  he  has  a  rat-like  tail,  flat  thighs,  rather 
flat  sides,  and  a  long  middle.  He  lacks  the  full,  rounding,  short  middle, 
and  full  thighs  of  the  horse.  He  has  a  longer  back  and  loin  and  shorter 
croup  than  the  horse,  and  the  croup  is  often  drooping.  Many  are 
sickled  in  hocks  and  cow  hocked.  Light  quarters  and  gaskins  and 
rough  hips  are  common.  ^  The  feet  are  smaller  and  narrower  than 
those  of  the  horse. 

Breeds  of  jacks. — A  number  of  breeds  have  been  imported  to  the 
United  States,  including  the  Catalonian,  Poitou,  Maltese,  Andalusian, 
Majorcan,  and  Italian.  American  breeders  have  made  various  crosses 
of  these  breeds  and  have  developed  by  selection  the  so-called  American 
Jack,  which  may  be  considered  a  distinct  breed.  Importations  of 
foreign  breeds  are  no  longer  made. 

American  breeders  have  selected  for  size,  weight,  bone,  style,  action, 
constitution,  and  finish.  The  present  standard  calls  for  15.2  hands  or 
over  for  jacks  and  15  hands  or  over  for  jennets.  Prices  up  to  $5,000 
have  been  paid  by  American  breeders  for  American-bred  jacks.  There 
is  a  strong  demand  for  high-class  jacks  for  both  jack  production  and 
mule  production. 

Best  type  of  jack. — The  best  jack  for  mule  breeding  is  one  having 
as  much  size,  weight,  and  substance  as  possible,  without  coarseness. 
He  should  stand  16  hands  or  over.     Very  few  jacks  exceed  16-1  hands 


1  Anderson  and  Hooper:     American  Jack  Stock  and  Mule  Production,  Ky.  Bui. 
212. 

507 


508  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

and  1,150  pounds.  He  should  be  lengthy  and  wide  in  form,  with  a 
straight,  strong  top,  deep  flanks,  a  well-shaped  head,  large  and  well- 
set  ears,  straight  clean  legs  showing  plenty  of  bone,  large  clean  joints, 
feet  of  good  size,  shape,  and  texture,  and  a  rather  fine,  glossy  coat  of 
hair.  He  should  be  active  and  show  considerable  style  and  spirit. 
The  best  color  is  black  with  light  nose  and  belly,  as  a  jack  of  this  color 
will  get  the  best-colored  mules  out  of  mares  of  all  colors.  Some  jacks 
are  mouse  colored,  and  some  have  a  mixture  of  chestnut  and  white 
hairs,  producing  a  red-gray  or  red  color.  Gray  is  fairly  common  but 
disliked  because  gray  jacks  sire  many  gray  mules,  and  gray  mules 
become  white  with  age  and  are  then  hard  to  sell. 


Fig.  200. — Correct  type  in  the  jack.  Limestone  Monarch,  a  noted  prize- 
winning  jack  bred  and  owned  by  L.  M.  Monsees,  Pettis  County,  Mo.  Height  15-3 
hands,  weight  1,212  pounds. 

Best  mares  for  mule  breeding. — Mares  standing  15-3  to  16-1 
hands,  and  showing  some  evidence  of  draft  blood,  yet  having  good 
finish  and  quality,  produce  the  best  mules.  These  mares  weigh  from 
1,350  to  1,500  pounds.  The  mare  should  have  a  roomy  middle  and 
she  should  also  have  large,  wide,  and  good  feet. 

Hooper  and  Anderson  of  the  Kentucky  Experiment  Station  ^ 
state:     "It  is  generally  recognized  that  in  the  cross  of  the  ass  and  the 


'Ky.  Bui.  176,  p.  394. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  509 

mare  the  coarser  qualities  of  the  ass  are  dominant  over  the  finer  quali- 
ties of  the  mare;  that  is,  the  distinctive  features  of  the  ass  are  to  be 
found  in  the  mule.  These  appear  in  the  head,  ears,  mane,  legs,  tail, 
and  feet.  The  mares  in  most  cases  are  able  to  modify  these  distinctive 
characteristics  but  not  to  suppress  them.  For  example,  the  foot  of 
the  ass  is  contracted,  and  needs  to  be  widened  in  the  mule.  *  *  * 
The  body  of  the  jack  has  a  tendency  to  narrowness  and  angularity. 
The  big,  round,  smooth  brood  mares  will  add  as  their  complement,  size 
and  smoothness  to  the  mule." 

The  mule. — Big,  heavy  mules  bring  the  highest  price  if  they  show 
smoothness  and  good  quality.  The  very  best  stand  16-3  to  17-2  hands 
and  weigh  1,600  to  1,700  pounds.  Few  reach  1,800  pounds.  Mules 
do  not  weigh  as  heavy  for  their  height  as  horses.  Mules  are  judged 
by  practically  the  same  standards  as  horses. 

The  mule  and  horse  compared.^Mules  are  more  sure-footed  than 
horses,  pick  their  way  more  carefully,  and  look  out  for  themselves 
better  than  a  horse.  Mules  are  more  intelligent  than  horses,  and  are 
more  apt  to  learn  to  refuse  or  avoid  hard  or  unpleasant  work.  When 
a  mule  gets  tangled  up  in  wire  or  into  some  other  predicament,  he 
usually  stands  quietly  until  released,  whereas  a  horse  often  becomes 
excited  and  struggles  even  though  he  lacerates  his  legs  and  body  and 
punishes  himself  very  severely.  Working  in  shallow  passageways  in 
mines,  the  small  mules  used  in  such  work  are  said  to  lower  their  heads 
when  their  ears  touch  the  top  of  the  tunnel,  while  ponies  under  similar 
conditions  throw  their  heads  upward  and  may  injure  themselves. 
Mules  usually  accept  their  lot  and  plod  along  at  their  work  without 
wasting  energy  in  fretting  or  nervousness,  while  worry  rather  than  work 
often  keeps  a  horse  thin.  Mules  are  less  sensitive  than  horses;  they 
accept  more  abuse  and  rough  handling,  and  get  along  better  under  an 
incompetent  driver.  Mules  stand  hot  weather  better  than  horses. 
Mules  are  less  subject  to  digestive  troubles  and  founder.  A  mule  will 
not  gorge  himself  as  a  horse  often  does  if  he  gets  into  the  feed  bin  or 
has  access  to  too  much  feed.  The  mule's  foot  has  a  very  thick,  strong 
wall  and  sole  which  enables  the  foot  to  endure  the  shock  and  concussion 
on  hard  pavements  particularly  well.  Mules  are  less  subject  to  foot 
troubles  which  cause  lameness,  and  their  feet  are  less  affected  by  con- 
tinuous shoeing.  Mules  are  usually  stabled  more  cheaply  than  horses. 
They  are  often  kept  in  sheds  or  pens  in  which  a  number  are  turned 
loose  together.  Aged  and  second-hand  mules  sell  better  than  aged 
and  second-hand  horses.  Mules  require  less  veterinary  attention  and 
are  less  often  incapacitated  for  work  than  horses.  Mules  once  worked 
together  as  a  team  are  harder  to  separate  than  horses.  This  may  be 
an  advantage,  or  it  may  in  some  cases  prove  a  detriment.     Mules  are 


510  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

more  uniform  in  form  and  color  than  horses,  and  are  easier  to  match 
into  teams. 

Anderson  and  Hooper  state:  ^  "The  mule  holds  his  place  and  is 
gradually  extending  his  influence  as  a  work  animal  because  he  can  do 
more  work,  on  less  feed,  and  keep  in  better  condition,  with  less  care, 
than  any  breed  of  horses.  He  stands  the  heat  well  in  the  South, 
resists  the  flies  as  the  horse  cannot,  and  fits  in  with  the  farm  labor  of 
that  section  much  better  than  any  horse." 

Sir  John  Moore,  Director  of  the  British  Army  Veterinary  Services 
in  France,  states  2  that  80,524  mules  were  purchased  by  the  British 
government  during  the  South  African  War,  and  he  estimates  that  over 
250,000  were  purchased  for  the  World  War,  including  over  90,000  used 
in  France  alone.  He  further  states:  "As  a  rider,  a  mule  is  of  little 
value;  a  supreme  will  and  an  iron  mouth,  as  a  rule,  prove  the  drawback. 
*  *  *  Their  endurance,  their  comparative  freedom  from  sickness,  their 
pluck  and  stout-heartedness  when  properly  treated,  their  ability  to 
perform  work  in  adverse  circumstances  and  when  short  commons  are 
necessitated,  are  their  usual  attributes;  and  their  employment  in  war 
is  a  great  economic  factor."  He  states  that  the  well-fed  mule  thrives 
on  work  and  quickly  gets  fat  when  idle.  He  states  also  that  in  the 
Somme  operations  in  1916,  there  were  16,074  debility  (poor  condition) 
cases  sent  to  the  veterinary  hospitals,  of  which  only  404  were  mules. 
The  percentage  of  inefficiency  was  4.42  for  horses  and  0.61  for  mules, 
or  seven  times  as  many  horses  as  mules  in  comparison  to  numbers  in 
service.  In  winter  they  gave  far  less  trouble  than  horses  from  skin 
disease,  and  there  were  practically  no  cases  of  respiratory  disease 
among  the  mules. 

An  editorial  writer  in  the  Chicago  Evening  Post  ^  states  that 
though  tanks,  tractors,  airplanes,  etc.,  have  displaced  time-honored 
material  of  warfare,  "the  army  mule  stands  fast  in  his  tracks."  He 
says,  "The  mule  will  go  on  serving  until  the  end  of  time  and  will  con- 
tinue to  do  little  more  than  to  flick  an  ear  when  in  its  awful  hollow 
there  sounds  the  equally  awful  language  of  teamster  tradition.  The 
American  army  has  sworn  at  the  American  mule  for  much  more  than 
a  century  of  time,  but  it  swears  by  him  as  often  as  it  swears  at  him." 
Again  he  says,  "The  mule  is  the  only  muzzle-loader  likely  to  survive 
the  mutations  of  time." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  mule  has  some  shortcomings  as  compared 
to  the  horse.  He  has  not  the  weight  for  the  heaviest  draft  work. 
Because  of  the  small  size  of  his  foot  he  is  more  apt  to  slip  on  pavements 


iKy.  Bui.  212,  p.  287. 

2N.  S.  Mayo,  Cook  Co.,  111.,  in  the  Breeder's  Gazette,  Nov.  23,  1922. 

3 Quoted  in  the  Breeder's  Gazette,  Apr.  5,  1923,  p.  472. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  511 

at  a  hard  pull.  Furthermore,  the  mule's  habit  of  pushing  directly  for- 
ward against  the  collar,  instead  of  crouching  and  lifting  like  a  draft 
horse  at  a  hard  pull,  also  results  in  slipping  on  pavements.  Mules  do 
not  work  well  in  soft  ground.  The  small  foot  of  the  mule  does  not 
bear  him  up,  and  he  is  usually  much  more  timid  under  these  conditions 
than  is  the  horse.  Mules  will  avoid  a  muddy  spot  or  puddle  of  water 
if  they  can.  The  wilfulness  and  trickiness  of  many  mules  and  their 
lack  of  spirit  makes  it  less  of  a  pleasure  to  drive  the  average  mule  than 
the  average  horse.  The  mule  has  a  harder  mouth.  Too  often  it  takes 
a  gag  bit  to  hold  him  and  a  black-snake  whip  to  make  him  go.     Mules 


Fig.  2')1. — Prize-winning  mules.  Champion  pair  of  mules  at  the  Iowa  State 
Fair,  owned  by  F.  L.  Hutson  and  Son,  State  Center,  Iowa.  These  mules  were  six 
years  old  and  weighed  1,600  and  1,620  pounds.  The  off  mule  (on  the  left  of  the 
picture)  was  the  champion  single  mule  of  the  show. 

are  not  adapted  to  use  in  the  artillery,  as  they  are  gun-shy,  usually 
lack  speed,  and  do  not  respond  to  commands  quick  enough.  They  are 
not  so  dependable  as  horses  in  an  emergency. 

George  E.  Wentworth,  superintendent  of  the  Chicago  Union 
Stock  Yards  Horse  Market,  in  an  interesting  article  ^  entitled  "Why 
Use  Adulterated  Horses?"  discusses  the  place  of  the  mule  in  warfare 
as  follows:     "They  say  the  mule  can  stand  more  heat,  but  cavalry 


'The  Horseman  and  Spirit  of  the  Times,  Aug.  4,  1914. 


512 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


regiments  in  South  America,  South  Africa,  Arabia,  India,  China,  or 
Morocco  are  not  mounted  upon  the  sure-footed,  swift,  enduring,  and 
patient  mule.  The  Cossacks  did  not  pursue  Napoleon  from  Moscow 
on  the  backs  of  mules,  nor  did  the  men  of  Marion  and  Sumpter,  Stuart 
or  Sheridan  win  their  victories  astride  the  progeny  of  a  jack.  The 
Crusaders  panoplied  in  full  armor,  fought  Saladin  and  his  Emirs  over 
the  dry  and  arid  dusty  deserts  of  Palestine  mounted  upon  Norman 
and  Arabian  horses.  Armies  trust  live  weight  to  horses,  dead  weight 
to  mules." 


Fig.  202. — High-class  draft  mules  at  the  Uiiii)ii  Stock  Yards,  Chicago. 

As  mules  do  not  breed,  there  is  no  opportunity  for  profit  to  the 
farmer  from  this  source.  The  mule's  inability  to  breed  is  something 
of  an  advantage  in  the  city  and  in  the  army,  as  there  is  always  the 
danger  of  a  mare  being  in  foal  when  she  is  purchased,  and  if  she  is  it 
causes  trouble  and  annoyance  in  a  city  stable  or  in  the  army;  she  must 
either  be  sold  or  kept  idle  for  a  time.  From  all  standpoints,  however, 
the  mule's  failure  to  breed  is  a  detriment  as  compared  to  the  horse. 

The  distribution  of  mules  in  the  United  States  is  shown  by  the 
numbers  on  farms  in  the  ten  leading  states  and  in  the  different  geo- 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  513 

graphical  divisions  on  January  1,  1923,  as  estimated  by  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture: 

Leading  states  in  numbers  of  mules  on  farms,  January  1,  1923 

Average  Average 

State  Number       value  State  Number        value 

1.  Texas 863,000  $80  6.  Arkansas 335,000  $73 

2.  Georgia 390,000  105  7.  Alabama 311,000  99 

3.  Missouri 373,000  63  8.  Kansas 307,000  58 

4.  Tennessee 343,000  84  9.  Mississippi 302,000  93 

5.  Oklahoma 337,000  58  10.  Kentucky 287,000  76 

Distribution  of  mules  on  farms  by  geographical  divisions,  January  1,  1923 

Division'  Number 

North  Atlantic  Division 77,000 

South  Atlantic  Division 1,047,000 

North  Central,  East  of  Mississippi  River 313,000 

North  Central,  West  of  Mississippi  River 927,000 

South  Central  Division 2,954,000 

Far  Western  Division 188,000 


Total,  United  States 5,506,000 

The  South  Atlantic  and  South  Central  states,  extending  from  the 
western  border  of  Texas  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  have  over  70  per  cent 
of  all  the  mules  in  the  United  States. 

No  mules  were  reported  on  farms  on  January  1,  1923,  in  Maine. 
New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Con- 
necticut. The  1920  census  found  only  2,367  mules  two  years  old  or 
over  in  these  six  states,  including  those  in  use  on  farms  and  in  cities 
and  villages. 

More  mules  than  horses  were  reported  in  1923  in  North  Carolina, 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Tennessee,  Alabama,  Mississippi, 
Louisiana,  and  Arkansas.  Georgia  has  four  times  as  many  mules  as 
horses. 

The  average  value  of  mules  on  farms  in  the  United  States  in  1923 
is  reported  at  $85.86,  and  the  average  valuation  of  horses  on  farms  is 
reported  at  $69.75.  In  only  two  states  are  horses  reported  at  a  higher 
average  value  than  mules.     These  are  Utah  and  Wisconsin. 

The  average  value  of  mules  varies  widely  in  different  states,  due 
principally  to  differences  in  the  average  age  of  the  animals.  Low 
average  values  are  usually  due  to  proportionately  large  numbers  of 
mule  colts  and  yearlings. 

Countries  having  the  largest  numbers  of  mules  are  United  States 
5,506,000,  Spain  1,295,000,  Argentina  611,000,  Italy  497,000,  Colombia 
203,000,  France  181,000,  Mexico  133,000,  and  South  Africa  95,000.  > 
Spain  and  Peru  have  more  mules  than  horses. 

Production  of  mules  in  the  United  States.— 0.  E.  Baker  of  the 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agricultural  Economics  states  that  two-thirds  of  I  lie 


'U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1921,  pp.  675-680. 


514 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


mules  produced  in  the  United  States  are  raised  in  the  western  and 
southern  sections  of  the  corn  belt,  and  that  the  center  of  mule  produc- 
tion is  about  300  miles  south  of  the  center  of  horse  production.  He 
also  states  that  whereas  the  number  of  horses  over  one  year  of  age  on 
farms  in  the  United  States  increased  only  6  per  cent  from  1910  to  1920, 
the  number  of  mules  increased  33  per  cent,  and  this  rate  of  increase 
was  almost  as  great  in  the  North  as  in  the  South.  ^  It  may  be  added 
that  while  horses  "not  on  farms"  in  the  United  States  declined  46  per 
cent  from  1910  to  1920,  mules  "not  on  farms"  increased  28  per  cent. 

Assuming  that  the  average  life  of  mules  is  about  15  years,  there 
will  be  a  loss  each  year  of  1  out  of  every  13  mules  two  years  old  or  over. 
Replacements  are  made  from  the  mule  foals  raised  each  year.     States 


^ 

?I 

MULES 

&   cons   ANO   >t«RLlNCS    INCLUDING   MULES   IN   CITIES   »ND 

NUMBER   JAN.    t.   1920 

VIILAGESI 

EACH  DOT  REPRESENTS 

~~y^ 

'^%^ 

l\ 

7j 

\6S 

s 

\ 

kI 

^'A'"''    \ 

W^^ 

X^-^My-v, 

M               y^ 

Fig.  203.— Distribution  of  mules  two  years  old  or  over  in  the  United  States. 


which  have  1  mule  foal  on  January  1  to  every  13  mules  two  years  old 
or  over  (a  ratio  of  1:13)  probably  produce  sufficient  foals  to  maintain 
their  present  number  of  mules.  ^  States  which  produce  less  than  this 
proportion  of  mule  foals  must  buy  from  other  states  in  order  to  replace 
losses  among  working  mules.  States  which  produce  more  than  this 
proportion  will  have  a  surplus  for  sale.  Note  the  ratios  in  the  follow- 
ing table  of  leading  mule-using  states,  based  on  census  returns: 


lA  Graphic  Summary  of  American  Agriculture,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook, 
1921,  pp.  471,473. 

2Xhe  census  of  1920  reports  a  ratio  of  1:12  for  the  country  as  a  whole,  and  this 
provides  an  increase  in  the  number  of  mules  in  the  United  States. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  515 

Mules  two  years  old  and  over  on  farms  in  leading  slates,  January  1,  1920 

Ratio 
(Number  of 
State  Twos  and  over  Foals  twos   and    over 

to  one  foal) 

1.  Texas 774,517  35,299  22.1 

2.  Georgia 399,801  2,141  186.7 

3.  Arkansas 292,658  14,625  20.0 

4.  Mississippi 288,971  10,052  28.9 

5.  Tennessee 287,939  33,217  8.7' 

6.  Alabama 285,838  4,533  63.1 

7.  Oklahoma 265,133  35,299  7.6' 

8.  Missouri 255,455  68,457  3.7 ' 

9.  North  Carolina 246,212  3,435  71.7 

10.  Kentucky 245,717  23,450  10.7 » 

11.  South  Carolina 215,712  1,040  207.4 

12.  Louisiana 172,347  3,272  52.7 

>  Mule-surplus  states. 

In  comparison  with  the  above,  note  the  ratios  in  the  leading  mule- 
producing  states: 

Mule  foals  on  farms  in  leading  slates,  January  1,  1920 

Ratio 
(Number  of 
State  Foals        Twos  and  over     twos  and  over 

to  one  foal) 

1.  Missouri 68,457  255,455             3.7 ' 

2.  Kansas 45,036  157,402              3.5' 

3.  Oklahoma 35,354  265,133             7.6' 

4.  Texas 35,299  774,517  22.1 

5.  Tennessee 33,217  287,939             8.7 ' 

6.  Illinois 29,224  113,271              3.9' 

7.  Kentucky 23,450  245,717  10.7 ' 

8.  Iowa 16,819  51,205             3.0' 

9.  Nebraska 15,782  69,643             4.4 ' 

10.  Arkansas 14,625         292,658  20.0 

11.  Indiana 14,509  72,162  5.0' 

United  States 389,279      4,651,694  12.0 

'  Nfule-surplus  states. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 
MARKET  CLASSES  OF  MULES 

The  mule  market  is  of  more  recent  origin  than  the  horse  market, 
but  has  developed  into  a  large  business.  Whereas  horses  are  usually 
sold  at  auction,  mules  are  usually  sold  at  private  sale,  being  sold  singly, 
in  pairs,  or  in  any  number  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  buyer.  When  large 
numbers  are  wanted  of  a  uniform  height  and  weight,  they  are  most 
often  sold  at  a  fixed  price  per  head  and  the  salesman  gives  a  guarantee 
as  to  age,  soundness,  and  other  requirements.  When  an  order  is 
placed  for  mules  of  different  sizes  or  for  different  market  classes,  they 
will  ordinarily  be  figured  individually,  or  in  pairs. 

Market  requirements. — The  market  requirements  for  mules  are 
similar  to  those  for  horses.  They  should  be  sound,  of  a  desirable  age 
and  color,  well  fleshed,  and  sleek  in  coat;  and  should  possess  abundant 
quality  and  a  strong  conformation.  They  should  also  have  good  action. 
These  requirements  are  discussed  in  detail  below. 

Soundness. — Mules  should  be  serviceably  sound.  Blemishes  are 
objectionable,  though  not  in  the  same  degree  as  with  horses.  They 
should  be  sound  in  eyes  and  wind,  and  should  be  good  workers.  The 
most  common  and  serious  unsoundnesses  are  large  spavins,  puffs,  side- 
bones,  defective  eyes,  and  unsound  wind. 

Age. — The  most  desired  age  is  from  four  to  eight  years;  however, 
there  are  exceptions  in  some  classes,  as  noted  below. 

Condition. — The  appearance  is  greatly  improved  if  mules  are 
marketed  carrying  flesh  enough  to  round  out  their  middles.  Sleek, 
glossy  coats  of  hair  are  often  estimated  to  be  worth  ten  dollars.  The 
flesh  should  be  smooth,  not  lumpy  or  roily.  The  value  of  flesh  on  mules 
is  about  equal  to  that  on  draft  horses — which  is  twenty-five  cents  per 
pound  with  a  good  grade  of  horses. 

Quality. — Refinement  of  head,  hair,  bone,  joints,  and  hoofs  is  an 
evidence  of  good  bone  and  wearing  qualities. 

Conformation. — All  mules  should  have  a  large  chest,  long  shoulder, 
deep  barrel,  straight  short  back  with  as  much  spring  of  rib  as  possible, 
a  broad  loin,  and  a  long  level  croup.  The  underline  should  be  com- 
paratively straight,  the  rear  flank  well  let  down,  and  the  thighs  and 
quarters  heavily  muscled.  The  legs  should  evidence  both  substance 
and  quality,  the  feet  should  be  large,  wide  at  the  heel,  and  sound,  and 
the  hoofs  should  be  smooth.  The  form,  muscling,  and  set  of  legs 
should  be  approximately  the  same  as  in  horses.     The  head  of  the  mule 

516 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


517 


is  a  good  index  of  his  disposition  and  temperament;  it  should  be  of 
good  size,  yet  clean-cut  as  an  evidence  of  quality.  The  forehead  should 
be  broad  and  flat,  and  the  nose  slightly  Roman,  which  indicates 
stamina  and  strength.  If  the  head  is  as  described,  the  animal  is  usually 
considered  to  be  a  more  reliable  and  agreeable  worker  than  one  not 
possessing  these  characteristics.  The  ears  should  be  long,  thin,  taper- 
ing, and  carried  erect;  the  neck  should  be  long,  with  moderate  crest, 
and  should  join  the  shoulder  smoothly.  The  mane  should  be  roached, 
and  the  tail  clipped  in  the  regular  manner  with  not  too  short  a  bush. 
Color. — All  mules  of  solid  color,  except  white  and  dun,  are  in  good 


Fig.  204.— Mining  or  pack  mule. 

demand,  though  color  is  not  an  important  factor.  Dapple  grays  are 
popular  in  the  draft  class,  but  as  a  general  rule,  bays,  browns,  blacks, 
and  chestnuts  are  most  desirable,  while  flea-bitten  grays  are  discrimi- 
nated against. 

Action  counts  for  very  little  in  market  mules.  They  should  show- 
vigor  and  energy  in  their  movements  and  be  straight-line  movers. 
They  should  not  be  lame  or  crampy,  nor  defective  in  action  because 
of  badly  set  legs. 

The  market  classification  of  mules  is  based  on  the  uses  to  which 
they  are  put,  but  in  order  for  a  class  to  exist  there  must  be  a  demand 


518 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


for  considerable  numbers  of  a  definite  type.  In  the  St.  Louis  market, 
which  is  the  largest  mule  market  in  the  world,  there  are  six  market 
classes  which  are  as  follows: 

Height 
Class  Hands 

MINING  MULES 12     to  16 

COTTON  MULES 13-2  to  15-2 

SUGAR  MULES 16     to  17 

FARM  MULES 15-2  to  16 

DRAFT  MULES 16     to  17-2 

[Wheel  mules 15-3  to  16-1 

ARMY  MULES j  Lead  mules 15     to  15-3 

[Pack  and  riding  mules. . .  .14-2  to  15-2 

Mining  mules  are  purchased  for  use  in  mines,  principally  to  haul 
cars  of  ore  or  coal  to  the  hoisting  shafts.     They  are  rugged,  deep 


Weight 
Pounds 

600  to  1,350 

750  to  1,100 
1,150  to  1,300 

900  to  1,250 
1,200  to  1,600 
1,150  to  1,300 
1,000  to  1,150 

950  to  1.200 


Fig.  205. — Cotton  or  lead  mule. 


bodied,  short  legged,  compactly  built,  and  have  heavy  bone  and  large 
feet.  They  stand  from  12  to  16  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  600  to 
1,350  pounds.  Those  used  down  in  mines  are  termed  "pit  mules," 
and  the  height  of  these  is  limited  by  the  depth  of  the  vein  worked. 
Small  pit  mules  are  produced  from  pony  dams.  Ages  from  5  to  8 
years  are  most  preferred,  but  a  well-developed  four- year-old,  or  a  well- 
preserved  ten-year-old,  is  often  accepted.  Geldings  are  much  pre- 
ferred to  mare  mules  for  this  trade  because  they  are  usually  more  gentle 
than  mare  mules.  Mine  mules  must  be  gentle  and  not  ticklish  about 
the  ears  and  feet.  Bad  wire  marks  on  the  feet  are  severely  discrimi- 
nated against,  as  they  are  likely  to  become  sore  from  contact  with 
sulphur  and  other  chemicals  in  the  mine.     The  demand  for  miners  is 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  519 

strong  and  constant  throughout  the  year,  and  comes  from  all  sections 
where  mines  are  operated. 

Cotton  mules  are  very  similar  to  mining  mules  in  size,  but  are 
lighter  boned  and  not  so  compactly  built.  They  should  have  small, 
neat  heads,  and  possess  much  quality  and  finish.  Their  feet  are  smaller 
and  bodies  proportionately  lighter.  Cotton  mules  stand  from  13-2  to 
15-2  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  750  to  1,100  pounds.  They  are  most 
desired  from  3  to  7  years  old,  but  may  find  ready  sale  up  to  12  years 
of  age.  Mare  mules  sell  better  than  geldings  in  this  class.  The  trade 
begins  about  the  first  of  September  and  continues  good  throughout 
the  fall  and  winter  months,  then  gradually  decreases  until  after  the 
cotton  crop  is  planted,  or  about  April.     From  this  time  until  the  follow- 


b'u:.  LMKi. — Sugar  mule. 

ing  fall,  the  demand  is  light.  Cotton  mules  are  used  by  cotton  growers 
to  plant,  cultivate,  and  harvest  the  cotton  crop,  but  a  great  many  such 
mules  are  also  taken  to  cities  for  use  on  delivery  wagons  and  for 
other  purposes. 

Sugar  mules  are  mules  especially  adapted  for  use  on  the  sugar 
farms  of  Georgia,  Louisiana,  and  other  southern  states.  Sugar  mules 
are  taller,  larger,  more  breedy  looking,  better  finished,  and  have 
heavier  bone  than  cotton  mules.  The  feet  should  be  large  in  propor- 
tion to  the  bone.  They  stand  from  16  to  17  hands  high,  and  weigh 
from  1,150  to  1,300  pounds.  Mare  mules  from  3  to  6  years  old  are 
most  desired  for  this  trade.  As  sugar  mules  are  larger  and  possess 
more  quality  and  finish  than  cotton  mules,  they  sell  for  a  little  more 


520  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

money.  The  trade  begins  in  August,  and  usually  ends  in  February. 
They  are  in  greatest  demand  in  September,  October,  and  November. 
Farm  mules  are  those  purchased  for  use  on  farms  in  the  central 
states.  They  are  less  uniform  in  type  than  the  other  classes,  as  farmers 
like  to  buy  animals  that  show  promise  of  further  development.  Farm 
mules  are  usually  from  15-2  to  16  hands  high,  and  from  3  to  6  years 
old,  four-year-olds  being  preferred.  They  are  often  plain  looking  and 
thin  in  flesh,  though  possessing  good  constitution,  bone,  and  feet,  and 
showing  indications  of  a  good  outcome  when  well  fed  and  cared  for. 
Many  of  them  are  worked  for  a  time,  then  fattened  and  returned  to 
the  market.  When  resold  they  may  be  taken  as  miners,  sugar  mules, 
or  cotton  mules.  The  strongest  demand  for  farm  mules  occurs  during 
the  late  winter  and  spring  months. 


Fig.  207. — Farm  or  wheel  mule. 

Draft  mules  are  large,  heavy-boned,  heavy-set  mules,  with  plenty 
of  quality.  They  are  purchased  to  do  heavy  teaming  work.  Many  are 
used  by  contractors  doing  railroad  grading,  and  consequently  they  are 
often  spoken  of  as  railroad  mules.  They  are  especially  demanded  for 
heavy  teaming  work  in  cities  in  warm  climates,  where  they  are  pre- 
ferred to  horses  because  they  are  said  to  be  hardier,  able  to  stand  the 
hot  sun  better,  and  not  subject  to  as  many  ills.  Draft  mules  stand 
from  16  to  17-2  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  1,200  to  1,600  pounds  and 
upwards.  They  should  combine  weight  and  strength.  They  should 
be  large,  rugged,  heavily  boned,  and  strongly  muscled.  The  feet  should 
be  large,  the  back  short  and  strong,  the  middle  deep  and  closely  coupled, 
the  croup  fairly  level,  and  the  thighs  and  quarters  massive.     They  are 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


521 


most  desired  from  5  to  8  years  old,  and  little  preference  is  shown 
regarding  sex.  The  demand  is  strong  and  quite  constant  the  year 
round.     (See  Fig.  202.) 

Army  mules. — The  demand  for  mules  in  the  army  is  very  limited 
and  the  class  is  not  important  except  in  time  of  war.  In  the  recent 
World  War,  the  American  mule  played  a  very  important  part,  and 
large  numbers  were  purchased  at  the  various  markets.  Three  classes 
are  required,  these  being  wheel  mules  and  lead  mules  used  in  four-in- 
hand  teams  on  army  wagons  for  transport  work,  and  pack  and  riding 
mules. 

Wheel  mules. — Government  specifications  call  for  mules  that  are 
"sound,  well  bred,  and  of  a  superior  class;  of  a  kind  disposition,  free 
from  vicious  habits,  gentle,  and  well  broken  to  harness,  with  free  and 
springy  action  at  the  walk  and  trot;  and  otherwise  to  conform  to  the 


Fig.  208. — Small  pair  of  wheel  mules  to  army  wagon 


following  description:  A  mare  or  gelding  of  uniform  and  hardy  color, 
in  good  condition,  from  3  to  8  years  old.  Three-year-old  mules  will  be 
purchased  only  when  exceptionally  fine  individuals."  Wheel  mules 
stand  15-3  to  16-1  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  1,150  to  1,300  pounds. 

Lead  mules  are  of  the  same  general  description  as  the  wheelers, 
but  are  smaller  animals.  They  should  stand  15  to  15-3  hands  high, 
and  weigh  from  1,000  to  1,150  pounds. 

Pack  and  riding  mules  stand  from  14-2  to  15-2  hands,  and  weigh 
from  950  to  1,200  pounds.  They  must  be  of  stocky  build,  with  a  stout 
neck,  short,  strong  back,  good  coupling,  large  deep  barrel,  and  good 
feet  and  legs,  with  ample  bone.  The  pack  mules  must  be  particularly 
deep  in  the  middle  and  strong  backed,  as  they  carry  a  long  pack  saddle 
which  fits  well  down  on  the  sides  of  the  mule,  and  they  carry  from  300 
to  350  pounds.     Pack  mules  are  used  for  transport  work  in  very  rough 


522  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

or  wooded  country  where  wagons  cannot  be  used.  The  demand  for 
these  mules  is  limited. 

Plugs  are  worn  out,  cheap  mules  that  have  but  little  value.  They 
are  usually  unsound  in  one  or  more  respects,  very  plain  and  rough  in 
form,  and  many  are  of  advanced  age. 

Export  mules. — The  export  trade  in  mules  has  increased  during 
recent  years.  Large  shipments  have  been  made  to  South  Africa, 
Philippine  Islands,  and  Cuba.  The  size  and  type  of  these  mules  varies, 
depending  on  the  use  to  which  they  are  put  and  the  country  to  which 
they  are  sent.  Some  are  used  for  army  service,  some  for  agricultural 
purposes,  some  for  heavy  teaming,  and  some  in  mines.  Hence  the 
term  "export  mule"  is  a  trade  name  which  is  not  restricted  to  any 
particular  kind  of  mules. 


CHAPTER  XL 
UNSOUNDNESS  IN  THE  HORSE 

Soundness  is  a  very  vital  factor  in  determining  the  value  of  a 
horse,  and  a  knowledge  of  unsoundness  is  very  essential  to  success  in 
breeding.  Brief  description  of  the  most  common  unsoundnesses  has 
been  deferred  until  the  close  of  the  discussion  of  horses  in  order  that 
the  student  may  learn  to  fix  his  attention,  first  of  all,  on  type.  The 
matter  of  soundness,  while  important,  is  often  overemphasized  by 
beginners.  Presented  here  at  the  close,  such  information  should  serve 
as  an  important  supplement  to  preceding  discussions  of  the  types  and 
market  classes  of  horses  and  mules. 

If  a  horse  is  unsound,  his  unsoundness  may  be  accounted  for  in 
one  or  more  ways:  (1)  he  may  have  had  a  natural  weakness  in  con- 
formation or  structure  which  predisposed  him  to  the  unsoundness;  (2) 
he  may  have  been  strong  in  conformation,  but  forced  to  do  extreme 
labor  which  was  beyond  the  power  of  the  animal  machine  to  endure; 
(3)  the  unsoundness  may  be  the  result  of  a  bruise,  blow,  cut,  or  other 
injury;  (4)  unsoundness  may  result  following  a  diseased  condition  of 
some  part  of  the  body  and  (5)  lack  of  proper  care,  as,  for  example, 
failure  to  keep  the  feet  in  proper  balance  so  as  to  distribute  the  weight 
and  wear  equally  over  the  various  parts  of  the  foot  and- leg,  may  bring 
on  unsoundness.  In  the  horse  for  work,  it  matters  little  which  of  the 
above  explanations  applies;  he  is  unsound,  and  the  horse  market  fixes 
his  value  according  to  the  nature  of  the  unsoundness,  without  regard 
to  the  reason  why  the  horse  has  it.  In  the  horse  intended  for  breeding 
purposes  only,  unsoundness  should  not  be  considered  a  serious  detri- 
ment unless  it  is  explained  by  the  first  of  the  possibilities  listed  above, 
For  example,  it  is  wiser  to  breed  to  a  horse  having  a  naturally  strong 
hock  which,  because  of  accident  or  extreme  work,  has  developed  a 
bone  spavin,  than  it  is  to  breed  to  a  sound  horse  having  a  weakly 
formed  hock  which  is  free  from  bone  spavin  only  because  it  has  never 
been  put  to  the  test  of  even  moderate  work.  It  is  often  difficult,  how- 
ever, to  determine  with  accuracy  the  reason  for  an  unsoundness,  and 
in  all  such  doubtful  cases  the  unsoundness  should  be  looked  upon  with 
suspicion  and  the  horse  rejected  for  breeding  purposes. 

Certain  unsoundnesses  are  ordinarily  referred  to  as  "hereditary," 
on  account  of  their  marked  tendency  to  reappear  in  succeeding  genera- 
tions. More  correctly,  however,  it  is  some  weakness  of  conformation 
that  is  transmitted  which  predisposes  the  members  of  the  family  to 

623 


524 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


one  or  more  unsoundnesses.  Considerable  difference  of  opinion  exists 
among  well-informed  persons  as  to  the  hereditary  transmission  of  some 
unsoundnesses. 

A  number  of  minor  troubles  which  are  not  unsoundnesses  are  here 
given  brief  mention,  because  of  the  frequency  with  which  they  are  met 
and  to  satisfy  curiosity  regarding  them.  Treatment  is  briefly  men- 
tioned in  some  cases  for  a  similar  reason.  Many  minor  troubles  are 
important  because  they  blemish  a  horse.  A  blemish  merely  detracts 
from  the  appearance  of  an  animal,  whereas  an  unsoundness  interferes 
with  his  working  capacity.  Many  unsoundnesses  are  blemishes  as 
well.  A  study  of  the  ills  to  which  the  horse  is  heir  shows  that  his  eyes, 
legs,  and  wind  are  the  seats  of  unsoundness. 

Blindness. — Any  defect  of  sight  is  a  serious  defect  in  a  horse,  and 
eye  trouble  always  furnishes  grounds  for  rejecting  horses  for  unsound- 
ness.    Inspecting  a  horse  for  blindness  requires  expert  knowledge  of 


Fig.  209. — Bog  spavin.    A,  Bog  spavin;  B,  sound  hock. 

the  diseases  of  the  eye,  and,  although  the  average  horseman  can  in 
many  cases  discover  defective  eyes,  no  horse  is  safely  passed  as  sound 
in  eyes  except  by  a  well-qualified  veterinarian.  Severe  weeping,  par- 
tially closed  eyelids,  sunken  eyes,  inability  to  bear  strong  light,  a 
cloudy  appearance  of  the  cornea,  unnatural  or  dull  color,  failure  of  the 
iris  to  contract  to  a  considerable  degree  when  brought  from  darkness 
to  light,  too  active  play  of  the  ears,  failure  to  blink  when  an  object  is 
passed  close  to  the  eye— these  and  many  other  conditions  give  evidence 
of  defective  vision.     (See  also  cataract  and  periodic  ophthalmia.) 

Blood  spavin  is  situated  in  front  and  to  the  inside  of  the  hock, 
and  is  merely  a  varicose  or  dilated  condition  of  the  vein  passing  over 
that  region.  It  occurs  directly  over  the  point  where  the  bog  spavin 
is  found,  and  is  sometimes  confused  with  the  latter.  It  constitutes  a 
blemish  rather  than  an  unsoundness. 

Bog  spavin  is  a  round,  smooth,  well-defined  swelling  in  front  and  a 
little  inward  of  the  hock.     On  pressure  it  disappears  to  reappear  on  the 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 


525 


outside  and  just  behind  the  hock.  It  is  caused  by  a  weakness  in  the 
synovia]  sacs  of  the  joint,  accompanied  by  a  hyper-secretion  of  synovial 
fluid  or  joint  oil.  Bog  spavins  are  more  often  blemishes,  rather  than 
unsoundnesses.  They  are  classed  as  the  latter  only  when  they  are 
well  developed  or  cause  lameness.  Slight  cases  are  described  as  merely 
"a  little  full  in  the  hocks."  Treatment  consists  of  rest,  blistering, 
cauterization,  and  the  use  of  pressure  pads  and  peculiar  bandages. 

Bone  spavin  is  a  bony  growth  of  variable  size  in  the  hock,  which 
may  or  may  not  make  itself  visible  on  the  exterior.  It  most  often 
occurs  at  the  inner  and  lower  border  of  the  hock,  but  may  arise  on  the 
upper  part,  or  on  the  outside  of  the  hock.  In  some  cases,  no  outward 
signs  of  spavin  are  perceptible;  these  are  called  "occult"  spavins.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  mistake  a  prominent  development  of  the  inner 
and  lower  border  of  the  hock,  natural  in  some  animals,  for  a  spavin. 
Hocks  that  are  narrow  or  tied  in  below  are  subject  to  bone  spavin,  as 
are  also  those  of  coarse  structure. 


Fig.  210. — Bone  spavin.     A,  Bone  spavin;  B,  sound  hock. 

Bone  spavins  affect  one  or  more  of  the  six  bones  of  the  hock. 
The  spavin  usually  represents  an  effort  on  the  part  of  nature  to  repair 
the  joint.  Spavins  are  caused  by  sprains,  by  violent  efforts  in  jump- 
ing, galloping,  trotting,  or  pulling,  by  slipping  or  sliding,  and  other 
similar  causes.  This  is  classed  as  an  hereditary  unsoundness.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  serious  unsoundnesses  of  horses;  it  causes  lameness  and 
stiffens  the  joint.  As  with  sidebones  and  ringbones,  the  size  of  the 
spavin  is  not  a  safe  index  of  its  seriousness.  An  excellent  test  for 
spavin  lameness  consists  in  lifting  the  affected  leg  off  the  ground  for 
one  or  two  minutes,  holding  the  foot  high  so  as  to  flex  all  the  joints. 
Then  start  the  animal  off  in  a  trot,  when  the  lameness  will  be  greatly 
intensified  if  it  is  caused  by  spavin.  Treatment  consists  of  complete 
rest  for  a  month  or  more,  blistering,  the  use  of  proper  medicaments, 
firing,  and  special  operations  on  the  joint.  Firing  produces  a  small 
scar,  and  when  this  is  present  the  spavin  is  called  a  "jack." 


526  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

Broken  wind  or  heaves  is  denoted  by  a  characteristic  hollow  cough, 
short,  and  something  like  a  grunt,  which  once  heard  is  easily  recognized 
a  second  time.  Inspiration  is  performed  normally,  but  expiration  is 
abnormal,  being  double,  or  what  is  commonly  called  the  "double  lift." 
The  first  portion  of  the  expiration  expels  the  air  as  normally,  and  the 
second  apparently  squeezes  the  remainder  of  the  air  from  the  lungs  in 
a  gradual  manner,  seemingly  with  more  or  less  voluntary  exertion. 
When  such  an  animal  is  put  to  work,  there  is  also  a  wheezing  noise 
with  the  breathing.  From  a  commercial  standpoint,  a  broken-winded 
horse  has  practically  no  value,  yet  he  may  continue  to  work  fairly  well. 
The  cough  is  sometimes  disguised  by  unprincipled  persons  through  the 
administration  of  such  substances  as  shot  and  grease;  but  this  is  only 
temporary.  The  abnormal  breathing  cannot  be  concealed.  In  some 
cases  of  broken  wind,  the  air  vesicles  of  the  lungs  have  been  found, 
after  death,  ruptured;  the  right  side  of  the  heart  enlarged,  and  the  walls 
of  the  stomach  dilated,  though  this  is  not  always  true.  A  predisposi- 
tion to  this  disease  may  be  inherited.  In  doubtful  cases  of  broken 
wind,  give  the  animal  all  the  water  he  will  drink  and  then  ride  or  drive 
him  uphill.     This  will  bring  out  the  symptoms  if  the  disease  is  present. 

There  is  great  diversity  of  opinion  as  regards  the  exact  cause  of 
heaves.  It  is  usually  associated  with  disorder  of  digestion,  or  to  an 
error  in  choice  of  feed.  Feeding  on  clover  hay  or  damaged  hay  or 
straw,  too  bulky  feed,  and  keeping  the  horse  in  a  dusty  atmosphere  or 
a  badly  ventilated  stable  produce  or  predispose  to  heaves.  Horses 
brought  from  a  high  to  a  low  altitude  are  predisposed. 

Capped  elbow  is  commonly  termed  "shoe  boil,"  and  consists  of  a 
bruise  at  the  point  of  the  elbow,  generally  caused  by  the  heel  of  the 
shoe  when  the  horse  is  lying  down,  and  sometimes  from  other  causes. 
The  continued  irritation  leads  to  the  production  of  a  tumor  at  the 
point  of  the  elbow.  The  skin  may  be  broken,  and  slight  suppuration 
very  often  occurs.  The  cause  must  be  removed,  and  the  animal  pro- 
vided with  a  leather  or  rubber  ring  around  the  fetlock  while  in  the 
stall.  The  remainder  of  the  treatment  is  surgical.  Capped  elbow  may 
cause  severe  lameness,  but  it  is  usually  a  blemish  only. 

Capped  hock  is  quite  common  and  may  or  may  not  constitute  un- 
soundness. It  is  the  result  of  a  bruise,  either  continuous  or  inter- 
mittent, and  may  appear  suddenly  or  gradually.  Such  bruises  may  be 
received  in  shipping  by  train  or  boat,  or  by  the  habit  some  animals 
have  of  kicking  against  the  sides  of  the  stall,  or  at  fences,  or  even  in 
harness.  The  skin,  bursa,  or  the  bone  may  be  involved  in  capped 
hock.  Usually  it  is  the  skin,  which  becomes  very  much  thickened  over 
the  point  of  the  hock.  It  is  in  every  case  a  blemish.  Treatment  con- 
sists of  hot  and  cold  applications  and  blistering. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  527 

Cataract. — When  the  lens  of  the  eye  becomes  so  cloudy  or  opaque 
as  to  present  a  white  or  grayish  color,  the  eye  is  said  to  be  affected  with 
cataract,  which  is  a  practically  incurable  form  of  blindness.  A  blow 
over  the  eye  and  other  causes  bring  it  on.  It  is  rather  common,  par- 
ticularly in  aged  horses. 

Chronic  cough.— A  permanent  cough  accompanying  broken  wind, 
glanders,  and  other  diseases  constitutes  an  unsoundness. 

Cocked  ankles  or  knuckling  is  a  partial  dislocation  of  the  fetlock 
joint,  in  which  the  position  of  the  bones  is  changed,  the  pastern  becom- 
ing more  nearly  perpendicular.  While  it  is  not  always  an  unsoundness, 
it  nevertheless  predisposes  to  stumbling  and  to  fracture  of  the  pastern. 
Young  foals  are  frequently  subject  to  this  condition,  and  in  the  great 
majority  of  such  cases  the  trouble  disappears  in  a  few  weeks  without 
treatment.  Horses  with  erect  pasterns  often  knuckle  as  they  grow  old, 
especially  in  the  hind  legs.  All  kinds  of  hard  work,  particularly  in 
hilly  districts,  are  exciting  causes  of  this  trouble.  It  is  also  caused  by 
improper  shoeing,  in  which  the  toe  is  made  too  long  and  the  heel  too 
low,  thus  producing  inflammation  and  retraction  of  the  tendons. 
Lastly,  it  is  caused  by  disease  of  the  suspensory  ligament  or  of  the 
flexor  tendons,  whereby  they  are  shortened,  and  by  disease  of  the  fet- 
lock joint.  It  is  one  of  the  worst  faults  a  horse  can  possess,  and  it 
greatly  affects  the  value  and  the  price.  Treatment  varies  depending 
on  the  cause  of  the  trouble.  Relief  may  be  secured  by  so  shoeing  as 
to  shorten  the  toe  and  elevate  the  heels,  thus  relieving  the  tendons. 
In  extreme  cases,  the  tendons  may  be  operated  on  to  secure  relief. 
Firing  and  blistering  effect  a  cure  in  some  instances.     (See  Fig.  212.) 

Contracted  feet.— Contraction  of  the  feet  is  not  a  diseased  condi- 
tion in  itself,  but  is  a  symptom  of  such  and  leads  to  trouble.  Contrac- 
tion is  due  to  a  removal  of  the  full  functions  of  the  foot,  such  as  is  the 
case  in  lameness,  removal  of  frog  pressure,  defective  shoeing,  etc. 
Contraction  occurs  more  especially  at  the  heels,  and  more  frequently 
in  the  fore  feet  than  in  the  hind  ones.  Veterinarians  look  upon  this 
condition  as  constituting  unsoundness.  Treatment  is  not  of  much 
avail,  but  going  barefoot  or  wearing  a  special  shoe  to  spread  the  heels 
will  help  to  alleviate  the  condition. 

Corns. — A  corn  is  a  bruise  to  the  fleshy  sole,  and  is  manifested  by 
a  reddish  discoloration  of  the  horny  sole  beneath  the  bruise.  It  usually 
occurs  upon  the  inner  quarter  of  the  fore  foot.  A  corn  very  often 
causes  severe  lameness,  and  is  a  cause  of  unsoundness.  The  treatment 
consists  in  paring,  special  shoeing,  poulticing,  keeping  the  part  thor- 
oughly clean,  and  a  few  weeks'  rest. 

Cracked  heels. — This  condition  is  denoted  by  an  inflamed  state  of 
the  skin,  which  becomes  broken,  and,  if  severe,  may  cause  lameness. 


528  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

They  are  frequent  in  the  horse,  especially  following  a  frost,  the  mois- 
ture from  the  thaw  favoring  this.  It  is  similar  to  chapped  hands,  and 
fissuring  is  favored  by  the  movements  in  the  hollow  of  the  heels. 
Treatment  consists  of  the  application  of  a  soothing  liniment  applied 
daily  with  tow  and  bandage. 

Curb  is  an  unnatural  prominence  of  variable  size,  located  on  the 
posterior  border  of  the  hock,  four  or  five  inches  below  the  point  of  the 
hock.  It  is  easily  detected  by  viewing  the  joint  in  profile.  It  is  caused 
by  a  sprain  of  the  tendon  which  passes  over  that  part,  or  of  the  strong 
ligament  located  there.  Hocks  that  are  sickled,  coarse,  and  thick  in 
appearance,  or  that  are  too  narrow  from  front  to  back  at  their  base, 
most  often  develop  curbs.  Violent  efforts  in  heavy  pulling,  high  jump- 
ing, or  slipping  are  often  the  direct  cause  of  curb.  Curbs  do  not  often 
cause  lameness,  or,  if  they  do,  it  is  usually  during  the  formative  stage. 
Legally  it  is  an  unsoundness,  although  it  is  not  much  of  a  detriment, 
especially  in  horses  for  slow  work.  Curbs  are  much  less  serious  than 
bone  spavins,  ringbones,  sidebones,  cocked  ankles,  and  stringhalt. 


A  I     IB 

Fig.  211.— Curb.     A,  Sound  hock;  B,  curb. 

Treatment  in  the  early  stages  consists  of  cold  applications  to  relieve 
the  acute  inflammation.  When  the  first  stage  has  passed,  blistering, 
frictions  with  ointments,  and  firing  are  often  used  with  good  success. 

Fistula  is  an  ulcerous  lesion  found  at  the  withers.  Fistulas  follow 
as  a  result  of  abscesses,  bruises,  wounds,  or  long-continued  irritation  by 
the  harness  or  saddle.  The  pus  burrows  and  finds  lodgment  deep 
down  between  the  muscles.  The  horse  becomes  incapacitated  for 
work  for  a  considerable  period.  Most  cases  are  curable.  The  treat- 
ment is  largely  surgical;  the  animal  should  be  placed  in  the  care  of  a 
competent  veterinarian  as  soon  as  the  condition  is  discovered.  After 
the  fistula  is  healed,  a  scar  usually  remains  in  the  region  of  the  withers. 
A  horse  that  has  had  fistula  is  liable  to  subsequent  attacks  of  the  same 
trouble. 

Founder  or  laminitis  is  a  simple  inflammation  of  the  fleshy  laminae 
within  the  hoof.  Being  exceedingly  vascular,  the  laminae  are  subject 
to  congestion,  and,  being  enclosed  within  the  hoof,  there  is  very  little 
room  for  the  relief  of  the  congestion.  The  animal  suffers  most  agoniz- 
ing pain.     Concussion  is  one  of  the  most  common  causes.     Another  is 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  529 

over-feeding  on  grain,  causing  indigestion,  irritation  of  the  alimentary 
tract,  and  inflammation  of  the  fleshy  laminae  through  sympathy. 
Other  causes  are  unusual  excitement,  bad  shoeing,  over-exertion,  ex- 
haustion, rapid  changes  of  temperature,  or  any  other  agencies  of  an 
over-supply  of  blood  to  the  fleshy  laminae,  resulting  in  congestion  and 
inflammation.  But  it  is  the  after-effects  which  are  of  most  interest  to 
us  here.  The  disease  sometimes  becomes  chronic,  and  this  seriously 
affects  the  secretion  of  the  horn.  The  toe  of  the  hoof  turns  up,  the 
heels  become  longer  than  natural,  while  the  hoof  near  the  coronet  is 
circled  with  ridges  like  those  of  a  ram's  horn.  These  ridges  are  wide 
apart  at  the  heel,  and  close  together  in  front,  and  are  due  to  periods 
of  interference  with  the  growth  of  horn  simultaneous  with  the  inflam- 
mation of  the  fleshy  laminae.  Because  of  the  high  heel  and  turned-up 
toe,  the  leg  knuckles  at  the  fetlock  joint.  Usually,  accompanying 
these  defects,  the  sole  is  found  to  be  thin,  convex,  and  weak,  and  will 
stand  but  little  wear.  Because  of  the  convexity,  the  diseased  tissues 
bear  unusual  weight,  and  such  animals  are  generally  incurable  cripples. 

Grease  is  not  an  unsoundness,  but  is  such  a  troublesome  and 
common  complaint  that  brief  mention  is  here  given.  It  is  a  skin  dis- 
ease appearing  nearly  always  in  the  hind  cannons.  Draft  horses  are 
more  subject  to  it  than  light  horses.  Some  individuals  are  predisposed 
to  it — those  with  coarse  skin  and  coarse  feather.  Other  horses  have 
it  as  a  form  of  parasitic  mange,  denoted  by  a  greasy  condition  of  the 
skin,  congestion  of  the  skin,  erect  hair,  and  offensive  odor  due  to  dis- 
charge from  the  sores.  There  is  a  constant  itching  and  the  horse  rubs 
the  part,  producing  thickening  and  wrinkling  of  the  skin.  Treatment 
varies.  Half  an  ounce  of  Fowler's  solution  of  arsenic  night  and  morn- 
ing in  the  feed,  burning  with  hot  iron,  applying  hot  linseed  poultices, 
dressing  with  lead  lotion,  giving  a  mild  physic,  decreasing  amount  of 
feed  allowance — all  these  furnish  good  methods  of  treatment. 

Hip  down  is  a  fracture  of  the  point  of  the  hip,  often  caused  by  the 
animal  striking  the  part  against  the  door  post  of  the  stable.  It  causes 
a  flatness  and  sometimes  the  broken  piece  of  bone  may  be  felt.  It  is 
best  detected  by  standing  squarely  behind  the  animal  and  viewing 
it  across  the  hips.     It  constitutes  a  blemish. 

Navicular  disease  is  a  chronic  inflammation  involving  the  navicular 
bone,  the  navicular  bursa,  and  the  flexor  tendon  of  the  foot.  It  is 
brought  on  by  repeated  bruising.  Light  horses  are  affected  much 
oftener  than  heavy  horses.  The  hind  feet  are  seldom  affected.  It  is 
practically  never  found  in  mules.  One-third  of  the  weight  falling  on 
the  leg  is  sustained  by  the  little  bow-shaped  navicular  bone,  and  the 
bone  in  turn  is  supported  by  the  flexor  tendon  of  the  foot,  (See  Fig, 
153,)     Such  defects  as  an  insufficient  plantar  cushion,  a  small  frog,  and 


530  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

contracted  feet  predispose  the  horse  to  navicular  disease.  In  this  way 
the  disease  may  be  hereditary,  as  these  predisposing  causes  may  be 
transmitted  to  offspring.  High  knee  action,  fast  work,  and  hard  pave- 
ments also  endanger  a  horse  from  this  disease.  Dry  stables,  heavy 
pulling,  and  bad  shoeing  also  tend  toward  the  development  of  this 
trouble.  In  the  early  stages  of  navicular  disease,  the  animal  at  rest 
points  the  affected  foot  forward  and  rests  it  on  the  toe,  with  the  fet- 
lock and  knee  flexed.  In  the  lameness  which  develops,  the  affected 
leg  takes  a  short  stride,  and  the  toe  strikes  the  ground  first.  The 
disease  is  progressive  and  incurable,  rendering  the  animal  practically 
valueless,  but  not  entirely  useless  on  soft  ground.  To  relieve  the 
pain,  neurotomy  may  be  performed,  an  operation  in  which  the  sense 
of  feeling  is  destroyed  in  the  foot  by  cutting  out  pieces  of  the  nerve 
at  the  fetlock.  Navicular  disease  is  one  of  the  most  serious  un- 
soundnesses. 

Periodic  ophthalmia  or  moonblindness  is  a  disease  affecting  the 
eyes  of  horses,  probably  caused  by  a  germ.  It  is  quite  commonly 
called  "moonblindness,"  because  it  was  thought  at  one  time  that  the 
moon  had  some  influence  on  the  cause  of  the  disease.  There  is  un- 
doubtedly an  hereditary  predisposition  to  the  disease,  but  there  are 
few  cases  to  indicate  that  the  disease  itself  is  transmitted  from  parent 
to  offspring,  but  rather  the  foal  is  born  with  a  weakness  of  the  eyes, 
transmitted  by  the  stallion  or  dam.  Other  predisposing  factors  are 
low,  swampy  pastures,  poorly  ventilated  or  insufficiently  lighted  stables, 
over-feeding,  etc. 

The  disease  comes  on  with  an  inflammation  usually  of  one  eye. 
The  transparent  portion  of  the  eyeball  becomes  bluish  or  white  in  color, 
most  noticeable  in  the  lower  part.  The  eye  is  kept  half  closed  on 
account  of  pain  produced  by  light.  Often  this  is  associated  by  a  swell- 
ing of  the  eyelids  and  reddening  of  the  membrane  lining  them,  with  a 
discharge  of  tears  over  the  face.  There  is  no  indication  of  an  injury 
or  more  severe  inflammation  at  one  point  than  at  another.  In  one  to 
two  weeks  these  symptoms  disappear  and  the  eye  may  be  practically 
normal  to  all  general  appearances  for  a  period  of  usually  one  to  three 
months,  when  another  attack  occurs  more  severe  than  the  first.  After 
a  few  attacks  have  come  and  gone,  the  eye  has  a  bluish  appearance, 
looks  cloudy  instead  of  clear,  the  eyeball  is  shrunken,  retracted  in  the 
orbit,  and  the  lens  develops  a  cataract.  After  having  destroyed  one 
eye,  the  disease  frequently  affects  the  other,  and  the  history  of  the  first 
is  repeated. 

Poll  evil  is  a  fistula  upon  the  poll  of  the  head,  and  in  no  sense 
differs  from  fistulous  withers  except  in  location.  It  is  caused  by  blows, 
bruises,  and  chafing  by  the  halter  or  bridle. 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  53 1 

Ringbone  is  a  bony  growth  at  the  coronet  or  on  the  pastern,  in 
either  the  front  or  hind  legs.  It  is  called  "ringbone"  because  it  often 
grows  around  the  coronet  so  as  to  form  a  ring,  although  in  a  large 
number  of  cases  the  growth  takes  the  form  of  a  lump  on  the  pastern, 
rather  than  that  of  a  ring  at  the  hoof-head.  This  disease  may  result 
from  severe  work  in  early  life,  from  bruises,  blows,  or  sprains,  or  from 
improper  shoeing.  Ringbone  often  follows  an  abscess  of  the  coronet, 
or  a  deep-punctured  wound.  It  is  also  classed  as  an  hereditary  un- 
soundness, horses  with  short,  upright  pasterns  being  predisposed. 
Ringbones  often  cause  lameness  which  may  disappear  with  exercise, 
returning  again  when  the  animal  is  cooled.  They  may  or  may  not 
stiffen  the  joint.  The  size  of  the  ringbone  is  not  so  important  as  its 
position.  If  it  is  located  so  as  to  interfere  with  the  movement  of  the 
tendons  behind  or  in  front  of  the  foot,  it  is  a  very  serious  trouble. 
Prevention  of  ringbones  consists  in  keeping  foals  well  nourished,  and 
keeping  the  hoofs  in  balance.  Curative  measures  consist  of  so  shoe- 
ing as  to  straighten  the  axis  of  the  foot  and  pastern  as  viewed  from 


A  B  C 

Fig.  212. — Ringbone  and  cocked  ankle.     A,  Sound;  B,  ringbone;  C,  cocked  ankle. 

the  side;  blistering,  followed  by  a  few  weeks  of  rest;  and  point  firing 
in  two  or  three  lines  over  the  ringbone.  When  these  measures  do  not 
relieve  lameness,  the  only  recourse  is  nerving. 

Roaring  or  thick  wind. — Horses  that  make  a  loud,  unnatural  noise 
in  breathing  are  said  to  have  thick  wind,  or  to  be  roarers,  excepting 
those  which  manifest  this  trouble  because  of  a  severe  sore  throat. 
Any  obstruction  of  the  free  passage  of  air  in  some  part  of  the  respira- 
tory tract  may  cause  roaring;  occasional  causes  are  nasal  polypi,  thick- 
ening of  the  membrane,  pharyngeal  polypi,  deformed  bones,  paralysis 
of  the  wing  of  the  nostril,  etc.  However,  chronic  roaring  is  caused  by 
paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  larynx,  thus  permitting  the  cartilage 
and  vocal  cord  to  lean  into  the  tube  of  the  larynx.  The  noise  is  made 
during  inspiration,  and  in  far-advanced  cases  may  be  produced  also 
during  expiration.  A  horse  is  tested  for  roaring  by  putting  him  to 
severe  exertion,  as  the  sound  is  usually  made  only  when  at  work. 
Roaring  is  a  serious  unsoundness  because  it  incapacitates  an  animal 
for  severe  work,  and  it  is  a  serious  blemish  because  the  noise  is  un- 


532  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

pleasant.  It  is  classed  as  an  hereditary  disease.  Treatment  varies 
depending  on  the  exact  cause,  and  includes  a  course  of  iodide  of  potas- 
sium in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease,  or,  in  advanced  cases,  operating 
on  the  larynx. 

Grunting. — When  a  pass  is  made  at  a  horse  with  a  stick,  or  he  is 
otherwise  startled,  and  he  grunts,  he  should  be  further  tested  for  roar- 
ing. It  is  a  common  thing  for  a  roarer  to  grunt,  although  grunters  are 
not  always  roarers.  Such  animals  should  be  given  a  severe  test  of 
wind.  Pleurisy  and  rheumatism  will  cause  grunting,  which  ceases 
when  the  animal  recovers  from  the  disease. 

Whistling. — This  is  only  a  variation  of  the  sound  emitted  by  a 
roarer.     It  may  be  temporary,  due  to  a  severe  sore  throat. 

Sand  crack  is  a  splitting  of  the  wall  of  the  hoof,  beginning  at  the 
coronet,  and  commonly  at  the  inner  or  outer  quarter  in  the  fore  feet 
or  at  the  toe  in  hind  ones.  It  is  due  to  imperfection  in  the  growth  of 
horn.  It  may  cause  lameness  through  sensitive  parts  being  nipped  by 
the  crack.  It  constitutes  unsoundness.  The  treatment  is  rest  and 
cutting  a  notch  transversely  below  the  crack.  If  there  is  lameness 
the  crack  may  be  clasped.  The  shoe  may  be  seated  out  below  the 
crack,  relieving  pressure. 

Sidebones  are  formed  by  the  ossification  of  the  lateral  cartilages 
of  the  foot,  so  that  they  become  hard  and  unjnelding,  instead  of  soft 
and  elastic.  (See  Fig.  153.)  This  disease  is  most  common  in  heavy 
horses.  They  are  found  more  often  in  the  front  feet  than  in  the  hind 
ones,  and  the  outer  cartilage  is  more  often  affected  than  the  inner  one. 
In  the  hind  feet  they  are  of  little  importance,  since  they  cause  no  lame- 
ness. In  the  front  feet  they  may  or  may  not  cause  lameness,  usually 
the  latter;  however,  they  always  lessen  the  natural  expansion  of  the 
heels  and  often  result  in  shortening  of  the  stride.  When  lameness  is 
present,  the  horse  comes  out  of  the  stable  stiff  and  sore,  but  with 
exercise  the  gait  shows  improvement.  Sidebones  are  caused  by  sprains, 
bruises,  blows,  and  other  injuries;  and  by  high-heeled  shoes,  high  calks, 
and  short,  upright  pasterns.  The  size  and  prominence  of  a  sidebone 
is  not  an  index  to  the  damage  it  may  produce.  Treatment  is  not  of 
much  account.  It  consists  in  using  cold-water  bandages,  then  blister- 
ing or  firing.  Neurotomy  (nerving)  is  often  practiced  to  relieve  lame- 
ness. This  is  classed  as  an  hereditary  unsoundness.  It  is  a  serious 
form  of  unsoundness,  but  is  not  so  serious  as  bone  spavin,  ringbone, 
roaring,  or  blindness. 

Splints  are  variable-sized  bony  enlargements  on  the  cannon  bone, 
usually  on  the  inside  of  the  upper  two-thirds  of  the  front  cannons.  The 
button-like  enlargements  at  the  lower  end  of  the  splint  bones  should 
not  be  mistaken  for  splints.     Splints  occasionally  cause  lameness;  if  so, 


Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock  533 

they  constitute  an  unsoundness.  They  are  more  detrimental  in  horses 
used  for  fast  work  than  in  heavy  horses  used  for  slow  work.  In  the 
great  majority  of  cases,  splints  are  only  minor  blemishes.  Many 
horses  have  them.  Splints  often  appear  in  young  horses  and  may  be 
absorbed  shortly  afterwards  without  treatment.  The  chief  cause  of 
splint  is  concussion.  Other  causes  are  sprains  and  injuries  or  blows 
on  the  cannon  bone.  No  treatment  should  be  given,  as  they  but 
rarely  cause  trouble.     Blistering  and  firing  are  sometimes  practiced. 

Sprung  knees  or  buck  knees. — This  defective  conformation  may 
be  congenital  or  the  result  of  heavy  labor  at  too  early  an  age,  there 
being  retraction  of  the  flexor  tendons  of  the  parts  below  the  knee. 
While  not  an  unsoundness,  it  detracts  from  the  usefulness  and  value, 
especially  in  saddle  horses.  Horses  with  badly  sprung  knees  may  fall 
even  when  standing  at  rest  and  unmolested.     (See  D  in  Fig.  158.) 

Stringhalt. — This  disease  comes  under  the  general  heading,  chorea, 
or  St.  Vitus  dance.  It  is  manifested  by  a  sudden,  involuntary  jerking 
up  of  one  or  both  hind  legs  when  the  animal  is  walking  or  trotting.  It 
may  be  very  slight  in  some  horses,  but  increases  with  age.  In  some 
the  affected  leg  is  caught  up  very  violently  and  high,  and  then  lowered 
equally  sudden  and  forcible.  It  is  more  often  associated  with  a  nervous 
disposition  than  with  a  sluggish  one.  It  is  an  incurable  disease  and 
very  considerably  lessens  the  price.  It  is  best  detected  by  causing 
the  animal  to  back,  or  turning  him  around  in  his  tracks  first  one  way 
and  then  the  other. 

Swollen  legs. — A  swollen  leg  usually  indicates  disease,  the  causes 
being  many.  It  is  also  not  uncommon  in  old  horses,  or  those  having 
a  sluggish  circulation.  It  is  not  an  unsoundness,  but  detracts  from 
the  appearance  and  is  highly  undesirable.  Treatment  consists  in 
giving  laxatives,  saltpeter,  and  moderate  exercise. 

Thoroughpin  is  similar  to  bog  spavin;  it  is  a  swelling  occurring  at 
the  back  and  on  top  of  the  hock  in  that  part  known  as  the  "hollows." 
It  is  due  to  weakness  of  the  capsular  ligament  and  to  hyper-secretion 
of  synovial  fluid.  It  is  round  and  smooth,  and  most  apparent  when 
viewed  from  behind.  The  swelling  is  usually  on  both  sides  and  a 
little  in  front  of  the  hamstring.  When  pressed  on  one  side,  further 
distention  occurs  on  the  opposite  side.  It  seldom  causes  lameness. 
Treatment  is  the  same  as  for  bog  spavin.  Thoroughpin  is  not  a  serious 
ailment,  being  usually  only  an  eyesore,  although  many  horsemen  con- 
sider it  an  unsoundness. 

Thrush  is  a  disease  of  the  cleft  of  the  frog  which  may  cause  lame- 
ness. It  is  usually  the  result  of  negligence,  the  result  of  uncleanliness. 
The  cleft  of  the  frog  becomes  suppurating  and  moist,  and  there  is  a 
very  rank  odor.     Treatment  consists  in  washing,  disinfecting,  drying, 


534  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock 

dusting  with  a  little  calomel,  and  packing.     This  must  be  repeated 
daily  until  the  part  becomes  normal. 

Windgall  or  road  pufif. — Joints  and  tendons  are  furnished  with 
sacs  containing  a  lubricating  fluid  called  synovia.  When  these  sacs 
at  the  fetlocks  become  distended  by  reason  of  an  excessive  secretion  of 
synovia,  they  are  called  windgalls.  They  form  a  soft,  puffy  tumor 
about  the  size  of  a  hickory  nut  or  walnut.  They  are  sometimes  found 
in  young  horses,  but  are  most  common  in  horses  used  for  hard  labor, 
especially  on  pavements.  They  may  be  accompanied  by  lameness,  but 
if  not,  they  are  classed  merely  as  blemishes.  As  a  rule,  no  treatment 
is  necessary  in  young  horses.  Older  animals  may  be  treated  by  resting, 
cold-water  douches  and  bandages,  and  blistering. 


Library 
N.  O,  State  College 


INDEX 


Action,  effects  of  conformation  on,  417-20 
essentials  of,  419 

(For  action   of  various  types  see  chapters 
on  draft,  carriage,  road,  and  saddle  horses.) 
Age  as  factor  in  value  of  horse,  480 

differences  in  carcasses  of  sheep,  233 
in  selecting  feeder  steers,  110-3 
from  teeth,  cattle,  46 

horses,  421-3 
sheep,  227 
of  veal  calves,  132-3 
Ages,  classification  by,  for  showing  cattle,  31-2 
hogs,  315-6 
horses,  400-1 
sheep,  217 

Alveoli  of  udder,  182-3 
American  horses,  origin  of,  427-31 
Jack,  507 
Merino,  279-87 
Saddle  Horse,  origin  of,  428-9 

type  of,  461-5 
Standardbred,  origin  of,  428 

type  of,  453-9 
-type  hog,  description  of,  317-26 
Anatomy  of  horse,  402-12 
Arabian  horse,  origin  of,  424 

Armour,  Philip  D.,  erection  of  first  chill  room  by,  91 
Army  mules,  521 
Artillery  horses,  485-7 
Ass,  507 

Auction  rules  for  selling  horses,  478 
sales  of  feeder  calves,  136 
market  hogs,  352 
Automobile,  effect  on  horse  industry  430-1 

Baby  beef,  98-101 

on  the  market,  123 
production,  149 
Bacon  hog  carcass,  342-3 
hogs,  370 

feeding,  331 
-producing  countries,  327 
production,  feeds  used  in,  327,  331 
-type  hog,  description  of,  327-34 
Barb  horse,  origin  of,  425 
Barreled  pork,  346 
Barrow,  definition  of,  315 

Barrows,  why  preferred  to  sows  for  slaughter,  338-9 
Base  of  support  of  horse,  413-4 
Bate,  John  J.,  early  beef  exports  by,  92 
Beef,  ageing  or  ripening,  53 
baby,  see  Baby  beef, 
block  or  side,  57 
breeds,  30 

interna]  fat  of,  74 
bull,  age  to  begin  using,  159 

importance  of  a  good,  154-6 
number  of  cows  bred  to  a,  159 
price  to  pay  for,  1 55 
type  desired  in,  154-9 
carcass,  47-62 

classes  and  grades  of,  57-8 

conclusions  from  study  of,  61-2 

cutters  and  canners,  57 

differences  due  to  sex,  58 

for  side  or  block  use,  57 

grading,  56-8 

heifer  vs.  steer,  54,  58 

shape  of,  53 

thickness  of  fat  on,  54-5 

flesh  in,  53-5 
variations  in,  52-6 
weights  of,  .53 
cattle,  average  value  in  U.  S.,  145 

breeding,  conditions  suitable  to,  149 

in  U.  S.,  14V-9 
center  of  production  in  U.  S.,  270 
distribution  in  U.  S.,  146-9 
in  leading  states,  146 


Beef  cattle,  continutd 

methods  of  marketing,  78 

number  in  U.  S.,  145 

percentage  of  purebred  and  registered 

in  U.  S.,  150 
prices,  high  and  low  months,  143-4 
see  Cattle. 

selection  for  breeding  purposes,  149 
shrinkage  in  transit,  80 
consumers'  demands  have  changed,  98-9 
consumption,  center  of,  in  U.  S.,  78 

in  U.  S.,  total  and  per  capita,  146 

various  countries,  335 
per  capita  in  U.  S.  for  three 
years,  384 
corned,  introduction  of,  90 
cow,  type  desired  in,  159-62 
cured,  value  of,  produced  in  U.  S.,  347 
cuts,  grades  of,  61 
prices  of,  60 
weights  of,  60 

why  some  are  high  priced,  60-1 
cutting,  58-9 
demands  of  butcher,  52-6 

consumer,  52-3 
dried,  source  of,  130 
exports  and  imports,  146 

pioneer,  92 
fresh  and  cured,  value  of,  in  U.  S.,  347 
grain  of,  56 
heifers,  age  to  breed,  161 

see  Heifer, 
how  quality  may  be  improved,  68-9 
imports  and  exports,  27 
-making,  value  of  type  in,  70-7 
marbling,  51-2,  55 
percentage  sold  fresh,  67-8 
production,  center,  78 

factors  for  success  in,  162 
in  corn  belt,  149 

U.  S.,  as  measured  by  annual 

slaughter,  145-6 
West,  method  of,  149 
see  Calves,  Carcass,  Cattle,  and  Feedpra. 
sire,  see  Beef  bull, 
slaughter,  center  of,  78 

percent  of  total,  335 
see  Slaughter, 
steer,  see  Steer, 
type,  definition  of,  28 

description  of,  33-46 
value  of,  produced  in  U.  S.,  347 
wholesale  cuts  of,  58-60 
Blindness,  524 
Block  beef,  57 
Blood  meal,  source  of,  237 
spavin,  524 

supply  to  udder,  183-4 
Boar,  age  to  begin  using,  398 
definition  of,  315 
number  of  sows  bred  to  a,  398 
type  desired  in,  395-8 
Boars  and  stags,  why  carcasses  are  inferior,  350 

on  the  market,  373 
Bob  veal,  132 
Bog  spavin,   524-5 
Bologna  bulls,  130 
Bone  spavin,    525 

Bones,  flintiness  of,  in  beef  carcass,  56 
of  cattle,  changes  due  to  age,  50 
size  of,  in  beef  carcass,  56 
Branch  houses  of  packing  companies,  92 
Brand  inspection  at  markets,  94-5 
Branding  cattle  at  markets,  94-5 
Brands  lessen  value  of  cattle  hides,  121 
Break-joint,  232-3 

Breed  a  factor  in  selecting  feeder  steers,  116 
of  horses,  selecting  a,  501 
type,  definition  of,  29 

535 


536 


Index 


Breeding  beef  cattle,  conditions  suitable  to,  149 
in  U.  S.,  147-9 
bucks,  on  market,  261 
community,  154 
cooperative,  154 
ewes,  on  market,  259-61 
for  milk  production,  195-205 
the  market,  cattle,  145-62 
hogs,  381-98 
horses,  494-506 
sheep,  267-78 
good,  essential  in  baby  beef  production, 
100 
importance  of,  150-3 
sheep  class,  259-61 

conditions  suitable  to,  270-1 
Breeds  of  beef  cattle,  internal  fat  of,  74 
cattle,  29-30 

numbers  in  U.  S.,  30 
dairy  cows,  differences  in  milk  of,  185 
hogs,  314-5 

numbers  in  U.  S.,  314-5 
horses,  431 

numbers  in  U.  S.,  431 
origin  of,  424-31 
jacks,  507 
sheep,  215-6 

classes  and  grades  of  wo'il  of,  299 
numbers  in  U.  S.,  216 
Broken  wind,  526 
Brood  mares,  selection  of,  503 

working,  497-8 
Buck,  definition  of,  217 

knees,    533 
Bucks  and  stags,  254 

breeding,  on  the  market,  261 
Bull,  age  to  begin  using,  159 
association,  the,  197-8 
definition  of,  30 
see  Beef  bull  and  Dairy  bull. 
Bulls  and  stags,  on  the  market,  129 
bologna,  130 
butcher,  129 
feeder,  137 
Bull's  Head  Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  85 
Butcher  bulls,  129 

cattle,  127-9 
cows,  128-9 
heifers,  127-8 
hogs,  367-8 

spread  in  price  of,  377-8 
Butter  consumption  in  various  countries,  195  6 

imports  and  exports,  27 
Buyers  at  live-stock  markets,  87 
By-products  from  slaughtering — 
cattle,  63-9 
hogs,  348-50 

in  early  times,  360-1 
sheep,  235-7 

Cab  horses,  489 

Calf  and   cattle  slaughter   compared   with   other 
slaughter,  335 
crops  of  various  states,  148-9 
definition  of,  30 
Calves,  charges  for  selling  at  Chicago,  88 
losses  of,  148-9 
manner  of  dressing,  48 
number,  value,  and  weight  at  Chicago,  79 
prices  of,  at  Chicago,  140-1 
see  Cattle  and  Veal  calves, 
stocker  and  feeder,  136 
yearlings,   and   older   cattle,    for   feeding, 
110-3 
Canada,  live-stock  industry  of,  25 

number  of  hogs  packed  annually,  362 
Canner  carcasses,  57 
cattle,  131 
sheep,  262 
Canter  described,  462 
Capped  elbow,  526 

hock,  526 
Car  routes  of  packing  companies,  92 
Carcass,  bacon  hog,  342-3 
beef,  47-62 

see  Beef  carcass. 


Carcass,  eonlinued 

classes  and  grades,  beef  and  veal,  57-8 
hog,  341-3 
sheep  and  lamb,  233 
goat,  233 
hag,  335-51 

see  Hog  carcass, 
sheep  or  lamb,  228-38 
see  Mutton  carcass, 
weights,  beef,  53 

hog,  341,  342 
lamb,  230,  233 
sheep,  230,  233 
veal,  58 
Carding  wools,  290 

Carloads,  number  of  animals  per  car,  80 
Carpet  wool,  292 
Carriage,  evolution  of,  426 
horse  class,   488-9 

in  America,  429-30 
origin  and  development  of,  426-7 
type,  description  of,  447-52 
Casings  for  sausage,  237 
Castration,  best  age  for  calves,  30 
colts,  400 
lambs,  217 
pigs,  315 
of  lambs,  importance  of,  251-3 
Cataract,  527 
Cattle,  advantages  of,  on  farm,  28 

and    calf   slaughter    compared    with    other 

slaughter,  335 
average  value  in  U.  S.,  145 
beef,  see  Beef  cattle, 
breeding  in  West,  status  in  various  states 

155-6 
by-products,  63-9 

effect  on  live  prices,  66-7 
value  of,  64-6 
centers  of  production  in  U.  S.,  270 
Chicago,  percentage  slaughtered,  81-2 
commission  charges  for  selling  at  Chicago, 

88 
dairy,  see  Dairy  cattle, 
dressing  percentage  of,  48-9 
dual-purpose,  see  Dual-purpose, 
early,  96-7 
fashions  in,  96-105 

feeder,  see  Feeder  cattle  and  Feeder  steers, 
feeding,  advantages  of,  117-8 
margin  in,  110 
source  of  profit  in,  109-10 
fill  at  market,  80 

general  market  terms  applied  to,  120-2 
grassers  and  fed,  121-2 
hides,  prices,  65 

value  affected  by  branding,  121 
value  of,  64-5 
imports  and  exports,  27 
market  classes  of,  119-44 

receipts,  79 
marketing  by  seasons,  81-2 
markets,  American,  78-95 

see  Markets, 
native  and  western,  120-1 
number,  value,  and  distribution  in   U.   S., 
145-7 
weight  at  Chicago,  79 
numbers  in  leading  countries,  145 

U.  S.,  145-7 
offal,  48 

percentage   passing  through   central   mar- 
kets, 78 
prices,  see  Prices, 
quarantine  of,  at  markets,  94 
seasonal   variations  in   marketing,   at  Chi- 
cago, 81-2 
see  Beef  cattle.  Bull,  Calves,  Cow,  Dairy 

cattle,  and  Steer, 
shipments  by  rail,  early,  83 

early  methods,  82-3 
shrinkage  in  transit,  80 
slaughter,  see  Slaughter  and  Slaughtering, 
terms,  definition  of,  30-1 
ticks  and  Texas  fever,  94 
types  of,  28-9 


Index 


537 


Cattle,  continued 

weights  of,  see  Weight  and  Weights. 
Caul  of  sheep,  229 
Cavalry  horses,  490 
Center  of  beef  consumption,  78 

slaughter,  78 
Centers  of  production  of  live  stock  in  U.  S.,  270 
Cheese  consumption  in  various  countries,  196 

imports  and  exports,  27 
Chicago,  Bull's  Head  Stock  Yards,  85 
cattle  market,  79-82 

slaughter,  91 
sources  of  receipts,  79-80 
charges  for  corn,  240,  354 
hay,  87-8,  240 
oats,  240 

public  inspection  of  hogs,  354 
selling  cattle  and  calves,  87-8 
hogs,  354 
horses'  477-8 
sheep  and  goats,  239-40 
yardage,  cattle,  87 
hogs,  354 

sheep    and    goats,    240 
development  of  meat  packing  at,  359 
early  cattle  trade,  84 
hog  market,  353-7 

growth  of,  353 
-packing  firms,  361 
slaughter,  361 

and  shipments  compared,  354-5 
packing  plants,  owners  of,  91 
percentages  of  feeder  cattle,  81-2 
prices,  see  Prices. 

receipts  and  sale  by  seasons,  cattle,  81-2 
hogs,  355 
sheep,  241-3 
effect  on  prices,  hogs,  379-80 
lambs,  265-6 
of  hogs  monthly,  355 
record  receipts  of  hogs,  353 
sale  of  feeder  cattle  by  seasons,  106 
sheep   by  seasons,  242 
see  Market,  Markets,  and  Union  Stock 

Yards, 
sheep  market,  239-43 

slaughter,  239,  241-2 
weights,    monthly    averages,   cattle,   80-1 
hogs,     356-7 
sheep,  240 
Chitterlings,  350 
Chunk  horses,  482-3 

Cincinnati,  early  hog  packing  at,  358-9,  360 
prices  for  hogs  in  early  times,  358 
shipments  of  cured  pork,  359 
Class,  market,  definition  of,  119 
Classes  and  grades  of  carcasses,  beef  and  veal,  57-8 
hogs,  341-3 
mutton  and  lamb, 
233 
see  Market  classes  and  grades, 
of  Merinos,  285-7 
sheep,  215-6 
Classification  by  ages  for  showing,  cattle,  31-2 
hogs,  315-6 
horses,  400-1 
sheep,  217 
of  fine-wool  sheep,  285-7 
see  Market  classes, 
types  and  breeds,  cattle,  30 
hogs,  315 
horses,  431 
sheep,  216 
wools,  292-300 
Clothing  and  combing  wools,  290,  294-5 
Coach  horses,  488 
Cob  horses,  488 
Cocked  ankles,  527 
Colostrum,  187 
Colt,  definition  of,  400 
Combing  and  clothing  wools,  290,  294-5 
Commission  charges,  Chicago,  for  selling — 
cattle  and  calves,  88 
hogs,  354 

sheep  and  goats,  239-40 
Commission  firms,  87,  89 


Community  and  cooperative  breeding,  154 

Conestoga  horses,  427-8 

Contracted  feet,  527 

Cooperation  in  live-stock  marketing,  88-9 

Cooperative  breeding,  154 

bull  associations,  197-8 
commission  companies,  89 
marketing  of  wool,  308-10 
shipping  associations,  88-9 

Corn  and  hogs,  351,  355-6,  381  2,  386-8,  390-1, 

closely  related,  386-8 
as  a  feed  for  farm  animals,  23-4 
beef,  90 

-belt  live-stock  industry,  24-5 
charges  for,  at  Chicago  market,  354 
uses  of,  386-8 
Corns,  527 

Cotton-belt  live-stock  industry,  25 
Cotton  mules,  519 
Cough,  chronic,  527 
Country  hides,  cattle,  65 
Cow,  definition  of,  30 

-testing  associations,  197 

study  of  records  of,  188-90 
Cows,  fat,  on  the  market,  128-9 

seasons  of  heavy  slaughter,  129 
see  Beef  cows  and  Dairy  cows, 
stock,  137 
Cracked  heels,  527-8 
Cripple  carts,  373 
Crippled  hogs,  373 

Crops,  percentages  fed  to  farm  animals,  21 
Crossbred,  definition  of,  151 
Cumberland  side,  342-3 
Curb,  528 

Cured  pork,  advantages  to  hog  producer,  345,  350 
demand  for,  in  early  times,  382 
early  shipments  of,  359 
products,  345-7 

value  of,  produced  in  U.  S.    347 
Cuts  of  beef,  58-60 

mutton  and  lamb,  234-5 
pork,  343-5 
Cutter  carcasses,  57 
Cutters,  130-1 
Cutters  and  canners,  130-1 
Dairy  breeds,  30 

differences  in  milk  of,  185 
bull,  importance  of  a  good,  201-4 
selection  of  a,  201-5 
should  be  a  good  individual,  204-5 

from    tested    ancestry,    201-5 
type  desired  in,  176-9 
cattle  breeding,  195-205 

center  of  production  in  U.  S.,  270 
cow,  type  desired  in,  163-76 
cows,  average  yield  of  milk  in  seven  coun- 
tries, 188 
cost  of  feed  as  related  to  production 

and  income,  189-90 
long-distance  records  made  by,  190-1 
methods  of  judging,  163-4 
notable  tests  of,  189,  190-1 
number,    value,   and    distribution    in 

U.  S.,  195 
records  made  by  breed  champions  in 

U.  S.,  190-1 
relation  of  production  to  net  income, 

188-9 
scrubs,  records  of  production,  199-201 
testing,  value  of,  196-7 
value  of  records  in  breeding,  196-7 
variations  in  usefulness  of,  188-94 
farming,  advantages  of,  205 

conditions  suitable  to,  196 
steers  for  beef,  70-7 

why  lacking  thick  flesh,  74-7 
temperament,  174 
type,  definition  of,  28 

description  of,  163-79 
Deacons,  132 

Dead   animals,   numbers   removed   from   carsat 
Chicago,  374 
hogs,  373-4 
sheep,  262 


538 


Index 


Dehorned  cattle,  advantages  for  feeding,  114 

definition  of,  31 
Delivery  wagon  horses,  485 
Depilatory,  301 

Dew  claws  of  calves,  age  when  hardened,  132 
Dipping  live  stock  at  markets,  94 
Docking  lambs,  best  age  for,  217 

or  shrinking  weights  of  hogs  at  markets, 
357-8 
Draft  horse  in  America,  429 
mare,  selection  of,   503 
mules,    520-1 
stallion,  selection  of,  504 
type,  advantages  of,  to  farmer,  499-500 
description  of,  432-46 
origin  of,  625-6 
weight  for  age,  446 
Dressing  calves,  48 

percentage,  average  of — 
calves,  48 
cattle.  48 
hogs,  337-8 
sheep  and  lambs.  230 
of  calves,  48,  132 

cattle,  47-9,  122,  127,  130 
hogs,  337-8 
sheep,  230 
see  Slaughter  and  Slaughtering. 
Dry-salt  meats,  346-7 
Dual-purpose  breeds,  30 

cattle,  profits  from,  209-11 

utility  of,  206-8 
type,  definition  of,  28 

description  of,  208-9 
Dyeing  woolen  goods,  291 

Early  maturity,  demand  for,  in  cattle,  98 
Eastern  chunks,  482 

Eastman,  Timothy  C,  early  beef  exports  by,  92 
Eckles,  C.  H.,  investigation  of  variation  in  milk 

production,  191-3 
English  meats,  347 
Escutcheon  of  dairy  cattle,  173 
Ewe,  definition  of,  217 

mutton  breeding,  type  desired  in,  275-7 
Ewes,  age  to  breed,  275 

ages  most  desired  for  breeding,  259-60 
fat,  254 
feeder,  259 

number  to  breed  to  one  ram,  275 
Export  buyers,  87 
mules,  522 
Exports  and  imports,  beef  and  veal,  146 
beef,  27,  92 
cattle,  27 
dairy  products,  27 
mutton,  269 
pork  and  lard,  383-4 
products,  362-4 
principal  meat-export  countries,  24 
wools,  304-5 
Express  horses,  483-5 

Farm  animals  as  producers  of  human  food,  312-3 
functions  of,  21 

numbers  and  values  in  U.  S.,  22-3 
see  Live  stock. 
Farm  chunks,  482-3 

crops,  percentages  fed  to  live  stock,  21 
mules,  520 
Farming,  live-stock,  advantages  of,  21-2 

vs.  grain,  19-20 
Fashions  in  market  cattle,  96-105 
Fat,  color  of,  in  beef,  55-6 

cows  on  the  market,  128-9 

effects  of,  in  appearance  of  horse,  444 

heifers  on  the  market,  127-8 

internal,  in  steers  of  different  breeds,  74 

steer  class,  122-7 

storage  by  hogs  and  other  animals,  339 

in  bodies  of  cattle,  50-2 
thickness  of,  in  beef  carcass,  54-5 
Fatness,  effect  of  feed  on,  in  steers,  42-4 
Fats  of  cattle,  65-6 
Fed  cattle,  121-2 

when  marketed  in  large  numbers,  121-2 
lambs,  247-8 


Fed,  eontinu*d 

western  cattle,  121 
Federal  inspection  for  disease,  93-4 

regulations  for  shipping  hogs  from  markets, 
371-2 
Feed,  charges  for,  at  Chicago,  87-8 

costs  for  horses  at  Chicago,  477 
effect  on  composition  of  milk,  193-4 
required  for  gains  in  hogs,  392 
steers,  55 
Feeder,  bulls,  137 
calves,  136 

cattle,  age  as  a  factor  in  selecting,  110-3 
classes  and  grades  of,  133-7 
demands  and  prices  by  seasons,  108 
how  they  differ  from  stockers,  133-4 
markets,  where  located,  107 
movement  and  prices,  106-8 
numbers      shipped      from      leading 

markets,  107 
percentages  at  Chicago,  81-2 
sale  of,  by  seasons,  106 
sorting  of,  107-8 
where  bought,  106-7 
ewes,  259 
horses,  491 

lambs,  weights  of,  256-7 
pig  markets,  371-2 
pigs,  371-2 
sheep  and  lambs,  255-9 

markets  in  U.  S..  243 
percentage    of     total     at 

Chicago,  242 
sale  by  seasons,  242,  255 
steers,  134-5 

selection  of,  106-18 
wethers,  259 
Feeding  cattle,  see  Cattle  feeding. 
Feeds,  fertilizing  value  of,  21 
Feet,  contracted,  527 
Fill  at  markets,  cattle,  80 

hogs,  354-5 
sheep,  240 
Filly,  definition  of,  400 
Fine-wool  sheep,  breeds  of,  216 

type,  description  of,  279-87 
Fire  horses,  487-8 
Fistula,  528 

Five-gaited  saddle  horse,  461-5 
Fleece  of  fine-wool  sheep,  283-7 
mutton  sheep,  222-6 
see  Wool, 
tying,  307 
Fleeces,  buck,  307 

cotted  or  matted,  307 
grading,  294-300 
of  breeding  ewes,  261 
feeder  lambs,  258 
Flesh,  effect  of  feed  on,  in  hogs,  327-8,  331 
steers,  42-4 
thickness  of,  in  beef  carcass,  53-5 
why  dairy  steer  lacks,  74-7 
Fleshing,  natural,  in  feeder  steers,  115 
Foal,  definition  of,  400 
Foot  of  horse,  anatomy  of,  408-11 

characteristics  of  a  healthy,  411-2 
Founder,  528-9 
Fox  trot  described,  464 
Free-martin,  definition  of,  702 
Freight  rates,  effect  on  cattle  and  beef  industry,  67 

Gains  by  hogs  of  different  weights,  392 
steers  for  different  periods,  55 
Gaits  of  horse  described,  458,  462-5 
Gammon,  334 
Gelding,  definition  of,  400 
General-purpose  horse,  429 
Gestation  period  of  cattle,  161 

horses,   503 

sheep,  275 

swine,  398 
Gilt,  definition  of,  315 
Goat  carcasses,  233 

skins,  value  of,  237 
Goats  and  kids — 

charges  for  selling  at  Chicago,  239-40 


Index 


539 


Goats,  continued 

market  classes  of,  263 

number    slaughtered    under    federal    inspec- 
tion, 263 
on  the  market,  263 
where  raised  in  U.  S.,  263 
Government    supervision    of    packers    and    stock 

yards,  88 
Governments,  373 
Grade  animal,  definition  of,  151 

dairy  cows  compared  with  scrub  dams,  1  19 
201 
Grades  of  beef  cuts,  61 

see  Market  grades. 
Grading  carcasses,  beef,  56-8 
hop,  341-3 

mutton  and  lamb,  233 
dairy  cattle,  198-201 
process  in  breeding  for  market,  153-4 
see  Market  classes. 
Grass  cattle,  121-2 

when  marketed  in  large  numbers,  121 
Grease,  529 

Great  Horse,  origin  of,  425 
Guenon,  Francois,  escutcheon  theory  of,  173 

Hackney,  origin  of,  427 

Hams,  long-cut,  342-3 

Hand,  definition  of,  423 

Hay,  charges  for,  at  Chicago  market,  87-8 

Heaves,  526 

Heavy-harness  type — 

description  of,  447-52 
see  Carriage  horse. 
Heifer  beef  compared  with  steer  beef,  102-5 
carcasses  preferred  in  England,  54 
definition  of,  30 
spayed,  definition  of,  30 
spaying,  reasons  for,  104-5 
Heifers,  beef,  age  to  breed,  161 
butcher,  127-8 
fat,  on  the  market,  127-8 
seasons  of  heavy  slaughter,  128 
stock,  137 
Hides,  cattle,  prices  of,  65 

value  affected  by  branding,  121 
values  of,  64-5 
see  Pelt  and  Skins. 
High-grade  animal,  definition  of,  152 
Hinny,  507 

Hock,  anatomy  of,  406 
Hocks,  bent  or  sickle,  420-1 
Hog  by-products,  348-50 

in  early  times,  360-1 
carcass    and   by-products,    conclusions   froni 
study  of,  350-1 
classes  and  grades  of,  341-3 
discussion  of,  335-51 
proportion  made  into  lard,  348 
wholesale  cuts  of,  343-5 
economy  of,  as  meat  producer,  312 
fattening  ability  of,  339 
markets,  and  pork  packing,  352-64 
-packing  centers,  leading,  361 
firms  at  Chicago,  361 
past  and  present,  352-64 
prices  as  related  to  supply,  379-80 
at  Chicago,  375-80 
monthly  variations  in,  379-80 
-producing  states,  384-5 
product  importing  countries,  363-4 
products,  exports  of,  362-4 
raising  combined  with  beef  production,   'i  <' 
dairying,  386 
conditions  suitable  for,  385-6 
countries  of  world,  leading,  383 
see  Hogs,  Pigs,  Pork,  and  Swine, 
slaughter,  annual  in  U.  S.,  383 

compared  with  other  slaughter,  335 
on  farms,  352 
Hogs,  an  unprofitable  type  of,  389-90 

and  corn,  351,  355  6,  381-2,  386-8,   390  1, 
391 
closely  related,  386-8 
dairy  cows  compared,  312-3 


Hogs,  continutd 

average  live  weights  of  those  packed  in  West 
in  winter,  389 
annually  at  Chicago,  389 
bacon,  see  Bacon  hog. 
big  type,  advantages  of,  394-5 
boars,  see  Boars, 
breeding  for  the  market,  381-98 
breeds  of,  314-5 

center  of  production  in  U.  S.,  270 
changes  in  size  for  market,  388-9 

type  of,  in  U.  S.  388-90 
charges  for  selling  at  Chicago,  354 

yardage  at  Chicago,  354 
docking  or  shrinking  weights  at  markets, 

357-8 
dressing  percentage  of,  337-8 
fattening  qualities  compared  to  othf  r  anim  .Is 

392-3 
feed  for  100  lbs.  gain,   392 
fill  at  markets  354-5 
grades  of,  365-6 

why  unnecessary,  366,  378 
increase  in  numbers  in  U.  S.,  382 
lard-type,  see  Lard, 
losses  of,  312-3 

market  classes  and  grades  of,  3f  5-75 
modern  type  of,  in  U.  S.,  390-1 
monthly  marketing  at  Chicago,  355 
number,  value,  and  distribution  in  U.  S., 

384-5 
numbers  packed  at  Chicago,  361 

Cincinnati  and  Chicago  in 

early  times,  359 
yearly  in  U.  S.  and  Canada. 
362 
offal  of,  337 

packer's  typo  of,    393-4 
producer's  type  of,  390-8 
public  inspection  of,  at  markets,  charge  for, 

354 
purebred  and  registered,  numbers  in  U.  S., 
314-5 
percentage  in  U.  S., 
398 
see  Boar,  Hog,  Pig,  PorK,  Sow,  and  Swine, 
selection  for  breeding  purposes,  391-8 
sell  largely  by  weight,  393-4 
shrinkage  in  transit,  354 
■size  in.  factors  essential  to,  390 
slauKhtering  and  dressing,  336-7 
sorting  at  markets,  374-5 
spread  in  price  of,  376-8 
types  of,  313-4 
weights  in  early  times,  388-9 

January  at  Chicago,  389 
monthly  and  yearly  at  Chicago, 

356-7 
most  desired  by  packers,  341 
yearly  averages  at  seven  markets, 
355-6 
Hoof,  and  how  it  grows,  409-11 

mechanism,  416-7 
Horse,  age  from  teeth,  421-3 
anatomy  of,  402-12 

importance  of  knowledge  of, 
399-400 
and  mule  compared,  509-12 
appearance  changed  by  fattening,  444 
base  of  support  of,  413-4 
breeding,  494-506 
carriage,  see  Carriage  horse, 
conformation  concerned  in  action,  417-20 
digestive  system  of,  403 
draft,  see  Draft  horse, 
effects  of  mechanical  inventions  on,  430  -1 
foot  of,  anatomy  of,  408-11 
fore  leg,  anatomy  of,   404-5 

attachment  of,  413-4 
height  of,  determination  of,  423 
hind  leg,  anatomy  of,  406 

attachment  of,  413-4 
hock,  anatomy  of,  406 
hunter,  see  Hunter  horse, 
important  facts  concerning  the,  413-23 
in  America.  427-31 


540 


Index 


Horse,  coniinued 

market  auction  rules,  478 

requirements,  478-80 
markets,  receipts,  477 
muscular  system  of,  402-3 
nervous  system  of,  404 
prices  at  Chicago,  492-3 
respiratory  system  of,  403-4 
roadster,  see  Road  and  Roadster, 
saddle,  see  Saddle  horse, 
see  Mare  and  Stallion, 
skeleton  of,  402 

compared  with  man,  407 
stride  of,  phases  of,  416 
terms,  definitions  of,  400 
utility  of,  399 
where  wear  comes  in,  416 
work,  average  life  of,  495-6 
Horses,  breeds  of,  431 
losses  of,  495-6 
market  classes  of,  477-93 
methods  and  cost  of  marketing,  477-8 
number,  value,  and  distribution  in  U.  S., 

494-5 
numbers  in  leading  countries,  494 
purebred  and  registered,  numbers  in  U.  S., 
431 

percentage  in  U.S.,  504 
types  and  breeds  of,  431 
Hot-house  lambs,  261-2 
Hunter  horse,  description  of,  469-73 
origin  of,  426 
production  of,  473 

Imports,  beef,  27 

cattle,  27 

dairy  products,  27 

mutton,  268-9 

New  Zealand  lamb  carcasses,  269 

of  American  pork  products  into  leading 
countries,  363-4 

principal  meat-import  countries,  24 

wools,  304-5 
Inspection,  federal,  for  disease,  93-4 

of  hogs  at  markets,  charge  for,  354 
Interfering,  420 

Jack,  best  type  of,  507-8 
Jacks,  breeds  of,   507 

prices  paid  for,  507 
Jennet,  the,   507 
Jersey  Reds,  weights  of,  388-9 

Kansas  City  Stock  Yards,  date  opened,  85 
Kemp,  226,  306 
Knuckling,  527 

Lamb,  cuts  of,  234-5 
V       definition  of,  217 

feeding  in  the  West,  248 

prices  as  related  to  supply,  265-6 

highest  and  lowest  months  at  Chi- 
cago, 264-6 
recent  demand  for,  228 
see  Mutton  and  Sheep. 
Lambs,  castration  of,  importance  of,  251-3 
fat,  247-51 
feeder,  256-9 

weights  of,  256-7 
hot-house,  261-2 

market  classes  and  grades  of,  244-66 
movement     to     market     from      different 

regions,  248 
spring,  248 
throw-out,  262 

weight  desired  at  markets,  249-50 
wethers  and  bucks  compared  in  gains,  251 
why  some  sell  at  a  loss,  251-3 
I  aminitis,  528-9 

I  ard  consumption  in  U.  S.,  383,  384 
grades  of,  348 
hog  carcass,  335-51 
production  annually  in  U.  S.,  383 
-type  hog,  description  of,  317-26 

development  of,  in  U.  S.,  381-2 
most  profitable  described,  318-9 


Lard,  continued 

value  of,  produced  in  U.  S.,  347 

Lateral  cartilages,  408 

Lead  mules,  521 

Lean  meat,  color  of,  in  beef,  55 

Legs  of  horse,  anatomy  of,  404-5 

attachment  of,  413-4 

defects  in  conformation,  417-21 

swollen,  533 

I-ibby,    .\rthur,   introduction   of   canned   products 

by,  90 
Light-harness  type,  description  of,  453-9 
Light  hog  class,  369-71 

light  hogs,  371 

mixed  hogs,  371 

Live  stock  as  producers  of  human  food,  312-3 
centers  of  production  in  U.  S.,  270 
exchange,  87 

farming,  advantages  of,  21-2 
industry,  growth  in  U.  S.,  23 

survey  of,  in  North  America 
24-5 
marketing,  see  Marketing, 
markets,  see  Market  and  Markets, 
numbers  and  values  on  farms  in  U.  S., 

22-3 
on  farms,  functions  of,  21 
percentages  of  world  totals  in  U.  S.,  23 
rank  of  states  in  value  of,  22-3 
shipping  associations,  88-9 
vs.  grain  farming,  19-20 

comparison  of  crop  yields,  20 
Loggers,  481-2 

Manure,  value  of,  20-1 
Marbhng  in  beef,  51-2,  55 
Mare,  age  to  breed,  503 

best  type  of,  for  horse  breeding,  503 

mule  breeding,  508-9 
definition  of,  400 
working  the  brood,  497-8 
yeld,  definition  of,  400 
Margin  in  cattle  feeding,  110 
Market  cattle,  how  classed  and  graded,  138 

class  and  type,  distinctions  between,  119- 
20 
definition  of,  119 
classes  and  grades  of  cattle,  119-44 
hogs,  365-75 
horses,  477-93 
mules,  516-22 
sheep,  244-66 
wool,  294-300 

government  stand- 
ards, 299-300 
average  prices  of,  cattle,  140-3 
hogs,  375-6 
horses,  492-3 
sheep,  263-6 
of  goats,  263 
live  stock,  not  official  or  standard- 
ized, 139 
mules,  516-22 
demands,  importance  of,  to  breeder  and 

feeder,  25-6 
essential  factors  in  a  large,  85-7 
grade,  definition  of,  119 
grades  of  cattle,  119 
hogs,  365-6 

why  unnecessary,  366,  378 
sheep,  244 
wool,  294-300 
see  Grades  and  Grading, 
prices,  see  prices, 
receipts,  cattle,  79 

effects  on  prices,  hogs,  379-80 
lambs,  265-6 
hogs,  352-3 
horses,  477 
sheep,  239 
requirements  for  horses,  478-80 

mules,   516-7 

terms  applied  to  cattle,  120-2 

sheep,  244-6 


Index 


541 


Marketing,  cooperation  in,  88-9 

lambs,  seasons  for  different  regions,  248 
live  stock,  steps  in,  90 
methods  of,  beef  cattle,  78 
hogs,  352 
horses,  477-8 
sheep,  239 
seasonal  variations  in,  cattle,  81-2 
hogs,  355 
sheep,  241-3 
wool  cooperatively,  308-10 
properly,  307-8 
Markets,  American  cattle,  78-95 
early,  82 

hog,  past  and  present,  352  -64 
horse,  477 
sheep,  239-43 
buyers  at,  87 
cattle,  location  of,  78,  83-4 

size  of,  in  South  America,  79 
development  of  large,  83-4 
feeder  cattle,  107 

where  located,  107 
pig.  371-2 
sheep,  243 
location  of,  83-4 
Mast,  381 
Meat  consumption  in  various  countries,  24,  335 

per  capita  in   U.   S.   for  three 
years,  384 
-export  countries,  24 
fat,  contains  more  energy  than  lean,  382 
-import  countries,  24 
industry,  three  eras  in,  91-2 
packing,  development  at  Chicago,  359 
production  in  U.  S.,  total  values,  347 
Meats,  boiled,  347 

dry-salt,  346-7 
English,  347 
smoked,  347 
sweet-pickled,  347 
Merino  type,  description  of,  279  -87 
Merinos,  classes  of,  285-7 

importance  of,  in  U.  S.,  279 
Mess  pork,  346,  382 
Mexico,  live-stock  industry  of,  25 
Milk  cistern,  182 

consumption  in  various  countries,  195 

cows,  see  Dairy  cows. 

ducts,  182-3 

effect  of  feed  on,  193-4 

mirror,  173 

nature  and  composition  of,  184-5 

production,  breeding  for,  195-205 

cause  of  variation  in,  191-3 
of  average  dairy  cow,  188 
secretion,  180-7 

stimuli  to,  187 
veins,  172-3 
wells,  173 
Milkers  and  springers,  137 
Mills,  Elisha,  first  packer  in  West,  90 
Mining  mules,   518-9 
Mohair,  310 
Moonblindness,  530 
Morgan  horse,  origin  of,  428 
Mule,  507-15 

and  horse  compared,  509-12 
Mules,  market  classes  of,  516-22 

requirements  for,   516-7 
number,  value,  and  distribution  in  U.  S., 

512-5 
numbers  in  leading  countries,   513 
production  of,  in  U.  S.,  513-5 
Muscle,  effect  of  feed  on,  in  steers,  42-3 
Muscles,  changes  in  cattle  due  to  age,  50 
Mutton  and  lamb  carcass,  228-38 

consumption    in    various    coun- 
tries, 335 
per  capita  in  U.  S.,  384 
slaughter,  per  cent  of  total,  335 
value  of,  produced  in  U.  S.,  347 
wholesale  cuts  of,  234-5 
breeding  ewe,  type  desired  in,  275-7 
ram,  type  desired  in,  272-5 
carcass  and  pelt,  228-38 


Mutton  carcass,  continued 

classes  and  grades  of,  233 
conclusions  from  study  of,  238 
differences  due  to  sex,  233-4 
qualifications  of  a  good,  230-3 
weights  of,  230,  233 
wholesale  prices  of,  233 
consumption  in  U.  S.,  total  and  per  capita, 

268-9 
cuts  ot   234-5 
exports,  268-9 
imports,  268-9 

production  in  U.  S.  as  measured  by  slaugh- 
ter, 268-9 
sheep,  breeds  of,  216 
class,  247-54 

increase  in  numbers  in  U.  S.,  268 
type,  description  of,  218-27 

National  Live-Stock  Exchange,  87 

Stock  Yards,  date  opened,  85 
Traders'  Live-Stock  Exchange,  87 
Native  cattle,  120-1 

lambs,   often   undocked   and   uncastrated 

244,  251-3 
sheep,  characteristics  of,  244-6 
Navicular  disease,  529-30 
New  Zealand  lamb  carcasses  in  U.  S.,  269 
Noils,  290 
Norfolk  trotter,  origin  of,   427 

Offal  of  cattle,  48 
hogs,  337 
sheep,  229-30 
Ohio  Sheep  and  Wool  Growers'  Association,  310 
Oleo  fats,  value  of,  65-6 
oil,  source  of,  237 

value  of,  produced  in  U.  S.,  347 
Oleomargarine,  manufacture  of,  65-6 

value  of,  produced  in  U.  S.,  347 
Omaha  Stock  Yards,  date  opened,  85 
Order  buyers,  87 

Pace,  slow,  described,  463-4 
Pacing  gait  described,  458 

records,  454 
Pack  and  riding  mules,  521-2 
Packer  hides,  cattle,  65 

the  first,  in  West,  90 
Packers'  branch  houses,  92 

car  routes,  92 
Packers,  country  hog  buying  by,  352 
do  they  control  prices,  67-8 
early,  demand  for  heavy  hcgs,  388-9 
government  supervision  of.  88 
Packing,  eariy,  at  Cincinnati,  358-9,  360 
hogs,  368-9 

-house  by-products,  see  By-products, 
industry,  American,  total  value  of  prod- 
ucts in  one  year,  93 
an  aid  to  cattle  producer,  68 
competition  in,  67-8 
development  of,  90-2 
narrow  margins  of  profits,  68 
three  eras  in  evolution  of,  91-2 
plant,  the  modern,  92-3 
plants,  owners  of,  at  Chicago,  91 
pork,  past  and  present,  352-64 
Packingtown,  91 
Paddling,  420 
Park  horses,  488-9 

Pasterns,  slope  of,  effect  on  action, 120 
Pedigree,  dangers  of,  204-5 

important  in  swine  breeding,  397-8 
value  of,  in  selecting  dairy  bull,  203-5 
with  performance,  203-5 
Pelt  of  sheep,  value  and  use  of,  235-7 
Periodic  ophthalmia,  530 
Pickled  pork,  346,  347 
Pig  and  dairy  cow  compared,  312-3 

economy  of,  as  meat  producer,  312 
Pigs,  fall-farrowed,  when  marketed,  356-7 
feeding,  371-2 
losses  of,  312-3 
on  the  market,  371 
roasting,  373 


542 


Index 


Pigs,  continued 

see  Hogs,  Pork,  and  Swine, 
spring-farrowed,  when  marketed,  356 
Pluck,  229,  237 
Plug  horses,   492 
mules,  522 
Pododerm,   409 

Poland-Chinas,  weights  of  early,   388-9 
Poll  evil,  530 
Polled  cattle,  advantages  for  feeding,  114 

definition  of,  31 
Polo,  history  of,    473 

pony,  description  of,  473-6 
origin  of,  427 
production  of,  476 
Ponies,  491-2 
Pony  breeding,  501 
Population  and  cattle  in  U.  S.,  145 
agricultural,  27-8 
of  U.  S.,  27-8 
Pork,  annual  exports  less  imports,  383-4 
barreled  or  pickled,  346 
consumption  in  U.  S.,  383,  384 

various  countries,  335 
cured,  see  Cured  pork, 
cuts  of,  343-5 
dry-salt,  346-7 
English,  347 
exports  of,  362-4 

factors  in  cost  of  production,  312-3 
foreign  demand  for,  382 
fresh  and  cured,  value  of,  in  U.  S.,  347 
-importing  countries,  363-4 
mess,  346,  382 
-packing  centers,  leading,  361 

development  at  Chicago,   359 
early,  at  Cincinnati,  358-9,  360 
growth  in  U.  S.,  361-2 
number   of   hogs    yearly    in    U.    S. 

and  Canada,  362 
past  and  present,  352-64 
seasons  and  year,  361-2 
winter   and   summer  seasons   com- 
pared, 361-2 
production,  conditions  suitable  for,  385-5 

in  U.  S.,  annually,  383 
products,  cured,  345-7 

exports  of,  362-4 
sold  fresh,  345 
value  of,  347 
slaughter  in  U.  S.  annually,  383 
per  cent  of  total,  335 
smoked,  347 
soft,  340-1 
sweet-pickled,  347 
value  of,  produced  in  U.  S.,  347 
wholesale  cuts  of,  343-5 
trade  in,  345-6 
Pregnancy,  duration  of,  in  cows,  161 
ewes,  275 
mares,   503 
sows,  398 
Prepotency,  definition  of,  150 
Prices  at  Chicago — 

as  related  to  supply,  hogs,  379-80 
lambs,  265-6 
market  classes  of  cattle,  140-4 
hogs,  375-80 
horses,  492-3 
sheep,  263-6 
monthly  and  yearly  averages — 
beef  steers,  142-4 
hogs,  379-80 
lambs,  263-6 

stocker  and  feeder  cattle,  1  0  <  !) 
spread  in,  cattle,  377-8 
hogs,  376-8 
sheep,   377-8 
Prices  at  Cincinnati,  hogs  in  early  times,  358 

for  live  stock,  two  kinds  of  fluctuations,  142 
Prime  heavy  hogs,    366-7 
Prolificacy  in  swine,  397 
Purebred,  definition  of,  150-1 

live  stock,  points  of  superiority,  153 

utility  value  of,  152-3 
see  Registered  purebred  live  stock. 


Quarantine  divisions  at  markets,  94 

Rack  described,  463 

Railroads,  early  shipments  of  cattle  by,  83 
Ram,  age  to  begin  using,  275 
definition  of,  217 

mutton  breeding,  type  desired  in,  272-5 
number  of  ewes  to  breed  to,  275 
Rambouillet,  287 
Range,  see  Western  range. 
Records,  fastest  trotting  and  pacing,  454 

highest,  by  dairy  cows  in  U.  S.,  190-1 
value   in   breeding   dairy   cattle,    196-7 
202-5 
for  beef,  162 
Refrigeration,  artificial,  91-2 
Refrigerator  car,  91-2 

effect   on    number   of   live   hcgs 
shipped  from  Chicago,  353 
Registered  purebred  live-stock — 
number  in  U.  S.,  cattle,  30 

hogs,  314-5 
horses,  431 
sheep,  216 
percentage  in  U.  S.,  cattle,  150,  198 
hogs,   398 
horses,  504 
sheep,  271 
Renick,  George,  cattle  feeding  operations  of,  82-3 
Ringbone,  531 
Road  horse  class,  489-90 

puff,   534 
Roadster  type,  description  of,  453-9 

origin  of,  428 
Roaring,  531-2 
Roasting  pigs,  373 
Roughs,    372 

Route  cars  of  packing  companies,  92 
Rudimentaries  of  bull,  177 
Runabout  horses,  489-90 
Running  horse,  origin  of,  425 

walk  described,  464-5 

Saddle  Horse,  American,  origin  of,  428-9 
class,  490 
first,  origin  of,  424 
type,  description  of,   460-8 
Sand  crack,  532 
Sausage  casings,  237 

value  produced  in  U.  S.,  347 
Scouring  wool,  302 
Scrub  animal,  definition  of,  151 

dairy  cows,  records  of  production,  199-201 
Scurs,  definition,  31 
Secretion  of  milk,  180-7 
Sex  differences  in  beef  carcasses,  58 

hog  carcasses,  338-9,  350,  358 
sheep  carcasses,  233-4 
Shearing  sheep,  288 

hand  vs.  machine,  307 
Shearling,  definition  of,  217 
Sheep,  adaptability  of,  270-1 

and  lambs,  marketing  by  seasons,  241-3 

number  slaughtered  under  fed- 
eral inspection  in  U.  S.,  263 
at   Chicago,    number,    value,    and   weight, 

239-40 
branding  with  paint,  306 
breeding,  conditions  suitable  to,  270-1 

for  market,  267-78 
breeds,  215-6 

wool  of,  classified,  299 
by-products   from  slaughtering,   235-7 
carcass,  228-38 

see  Mutton  carcass, 
caul,  229 

center  of  production  in  U.  S.,  270 
classes  of,  215 

charges  for  selling  at  Chicago,  239-40 
dressing,  method  of,  228-9 
percentage  of,  230 
feed  and  labor  requirements,  213-4 
feeder  markets,  243 

sale  by  seasons  at  Chicago,  242 
fill  at  markets,  240 
industry  in  U.  S.  in  early  times.  267 


Index 


511} 


Sheep,  continued 

market  classes  and  grrades,  244-66 

markets  and  their  receipts,  239^3 

most  profitable  kind  to  grow,  216-7 

must  be  handled  at  markets,  241 

native  and  western,  244-6 

number,  value,  and  distribution  in  U.  S., 

269-70 
numbers  in  leading  countries,  268 
oflfal,  229-30 
pelt,  value  of,  235-7 
prices  at  Chicago,  263-6 
purebred    and    reg:istered,     percentage    in 

U.  S.,  271 
raising,  advantages  of,  214-5 
present  status  of,  213 
see  Ewe,  Lamb,  Mutton,  and  Ram. 
shearing,  288 
shrinkage  in  shipping,  240 
slaughter  compared  with  other  slaughter,  335 

see  Slaughter  and  Slaughtering, 
sorting  and  selling  at  Markets,  241 
source  of  improvement  in,  271-2 
spread  in  price  of,  377-8 
terms,  definition  of,  217 
types  of,  215-7 

weights,  monthly  averages  at  Chicago,  240 
Shoddy,  291 

Shoeing,  cost  at  Chicago,  478 
Short-feds,  121 
Shote,  definition  of,  315 

Show-yard  classification  by  ages,  cattle,  31-2 
hogs,  315-6 
horses,  400-1 
sheep,  217 
Shrinkage   in   slaughtering   and   proces.sing,    hogs, 
348-9 
transit,  beef  cattle,  80 
hogs,  354 
sheep,  240 
of  wools,  297-9 
Sickle  hocks,  420-1 
Sidebone,   532 
Skins  of  goats,  value  of,  237 
sheep,  value  of,  237 
Slaughter  at  Chicago,  number  of  calves,  91 
cattle,  91 
hogs,  361 
sheep,  239 
in  U.  S.  annually,  beef,  145-6 
hogs,  383 
mutton,  268-9 
pork    compared    with 
other  meats,  335 
veal,  145-6 
see  Dressing. 
Slaughtering  and  dressing  cattle,  47-8 
hogs,  336-7 
sheep,  228-30 
bofirs  on  farms,  352 
see  Dressing. 
Sloan,  Tod,  his  method  of  riding,  414-5 
Smoked  meats,  347 
Soil  fertility,  maintenance  of,  20 
Sorting  at  markets,  feeder  cattle,  107-8 
hogs,  374-5 
sheep,  241 
wool,  300-1 
Soundness  as  a  factor  in  value  of  horse,  478-9 

in  breeding  ewes,  261 
Southern  chunks,  483 
Southerns,  121 
Sow,  age  to  begin  breeding,  398 

type  desired  in,  395-8 
Sows,  big  type,  ease  of  farrowing,  394 

pregnant,  dockage  at  markets,  357-8 
seedy,  338-9 
Spanish  horse,  origin  of,  425 

Merino,  279 
Spavins,  525 

Spayed  heifer,  definition  of,  30 
Spaying  heifers,  reasons  for,  104-5 
Speculators,  87 
Splint,  532-3 

Spraying  hogs  at  markets,  94 
Spread  in  price  of  beef  steers,  144 


Spread  in  price  of,  continued 

cattle,  377  8 

hogs,  376-8 

sheep,  377-8 

Spring  lambs,  248 

Springer  cows  and  heifers,  137 

Sprung  knees,  533 

St.  Louis  Stock  Yards,  date  opened,  85 
Steg,  definitions  of,  30,  217,  315,  400 
Stags,  129,  254,  372 

dockage  in  weight  on  hog  market,  357-8 
Stallion,  age  to  begin  using,  503 
definition  of,  400 
type  desired  in,   504 
Standardbred  horse,  origin  of,  428 
type  of,  453-9 
Stearin,  349 

value  of,  produced  in  U.  S.,  347 
Steer  and  heifer  beef  compared,  102-5 
beef  type  vs.  dairy  type,  70-7 
class  on  market,  122-7 
definition  of,  30 
Steers,  beef,  prices  monthly  and  yearly  at  Chicago 
142-4 
spread  in,  144 
changes  in,  due  to  feeding,  42-4 
good  to  prime,  spread  in  prices,  378 
see  Cattle  and  Feeder, 
weights  at  various  ages,  45-6 
Stepping  pace  described,  463-4 
Stock  cows,  137 
heifers,  137 

yard  companies,  revenue  of,  85 
company,  functions  of,  85 
yards,  government  supervision  of,  88 
Stocker  and  feeder  calves,  136 

cattle,  classes  and  grades,  133-7 
sale  by  seasons,  106 
where  bought,  106-7 
how  differs  from  feeder,  133-4 
see  Feeder. 
Stockers,  yearling,  135-6 
Stomach  worm  of  sheep,  245-6 
Stringhalt,    533 
Sub-class,  123-4 
Sugar  mules,  519-20 
Suprarenalin,  237 
Sweet-pickled  meats,  347 
Sweetbreads,  66 

Swift  and  Company,  branch  houses  and  car  routes, 
92 
G.  F.,  first  refrigerator  car  shipment  by,  92 
Swine,  advantages  of  raising,  311 
breeds  of,  314-5 
see  Hog,  Pig,  and  Pork, 
types  of,  313-4 
Swollen  legs,  533 

Tallow,  65-6 

and  oleo  oil,  value  produced  in  U.  S.,  347 
Tankage,  meat  meal,  manufacture  of,  66 
Teats  of  dairy  cow,  171-2 

structure  of,  181-2 
Teeth  as  indication  of  age  of  cattle,  46 

horses,  421-3 
sheep,  227 
Temperament,  dairy,  174 
Tests  of  dairy  cows  at  expositions,  189 
Texas  and  western  range  cattle,  120-1 

cattle,  movement  into  other  states,  147-9 
Thick  wind,   531-2 
Thoroughbred,  origin  of,  425 
Thoroughpin,  533 
Three-gaited  saddle  horse,  465 
Throw-out  lambs,  262 
Thrush.  533-4 
Thyroidin,  237 

Tick-infested  cattle  at  markets,  94 
Top,  290 

Tractor,  effect  on  horse  industry,  430-1 
Traders,  87 

Traders'  Live-Stock  Exchange,  87 
Transportation,  early  methods  of,  82-3 
Tripe,  66,  237 

Trotting  gait  described,  458 
horse,  origin  of,  428 


544 


Index 


Trotting,  continued 

records,  453-4 
Tuberculin  test  of  cattle  at  markets,  94 
Turk  horse,  origin  of,  425 
Two-shear,  definition  of,  217 
Two-tooth,  definition  of,  217 

Type  and  market  class,  distinctions  between,  119-20 
definition  of,  29 
in  hogs,  changes  in,   388-90 
of  horse  to  breed,  choice  of  a,  498-9 
value  of,  in  beef  making,  70-7 
Types  of  cattle,  28-9 
horses,  431 

effects  of  mechanical  inventions  on, 

430-1 
origin  of,  424-31 
sheep,  215-7 
swine,  313-4 

Udder  of  cow,  blood  supply  of,  183-4 
structure  of,  180-2 
dairy  cow,  170-2 
Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago — 

description  of,  85 
founding  of,  84-5 
methods  and  cost  of  market- 
ing horses  at,  477-8 
see  Chicago. 

sources  of  receipts,  79-80 
Unsoundness  in  the  horse,  523-34 

Vaccination  of  hogs  at  markets,  94 
Variations  in  usefulness  of  dairy  cows,  188-94 
Veal  calves,  132-3 

when  marketed  in  large  numbers,  133 

consumption  in  U.  S.,  146,  384 

various  countries,  335 

exports  and  imports,  146 

production,  annual,  in  U.  S.,  145-6 

see  Calves. 

value  of,  produced  in  U.  S.,  347 

Wagon  horses,  483-8 

Walk,  running,  described,  464-5 

trot,  canter  horse,  465 
War  horse,  origin  of,  425 
Warmed-up  cattle,  121 
Weanling,  definition  of,  400 
Weeds,  492 

Weight  desired  in  market  bacon  hogs,  327-8 
dressed,  average  of  lambs,  230 
sheep,  230 
for  age,  beef  bulls  and  cows,  157 
draft  horses,  446 
lard  hogs,  326 
steers,  45-6 
hogs  sell  largely  according  to,  393-4 
importance  of,  in  draft  horses,  432-3 
of  draft  horses,  446 

hogs,  most  profitable,  326 
veal  calves,  132-3 
Weights  of  beef  cattle  in  early  times,  96-7 
cattle  monthly  at  Chicago,  80-1 

stockers  and  feeders,  134 
hog  carcasses,  341 
hogs  in  early  times,  388-9 

January  at  Chicago,  3S9 
market  classes,  365 
mature  bacon  type,  328 

lard  type,  326 
monthly  and   yearly  averages   at 

Chicago,  356-7 
packed  in  winter  in  West,  389 
yearly  at  Chicago,  389 

seven  markets,  355-6 
horses,  481 
lambs,  fat,  249-50 

feeders,  256-7 
pork  products,  345,  346 
sheep  monthly  at  Chicago,  240 
Western  range  cattle,  120-1 

breeding   in   various  states 

155-6 
movement    into    corn    belt, 
147-9 


Western  range,  continued 

receipts  at  Chicago,  79 
live-stock  industry,   25 
horses,  491 

sheep,  characteristics  of,  244-6 
prices  at  Chicago,  263-4 
Wether,  definition  of,  217 
Wethers,  fat,  254 

feeders,  259 
Wheel  mules,  521 
Whistling,  532 
Wholesale  cuts  of  beef,  58-60 

mutton  and  lamb,  234-5 
pork,  343-5 
Wiltshire  side,  342 
Windgall,   534 
Wool,  black,  307 
burs  in,  307 
carbonization  of,  302-3 
clip  of  world,  303 
consumption  per  capita,  288 
cooperative  marketing  of,  308-10 
cotted  or  matted,  307 
dyeing,  291 

factors  determining  value  of,  305-8 
felting  quality  of,  289 
fiber,  strength  of,  306 

structure  of,  288-9 
fineness  of,  289-90 
frowzy,  300 
grading,  294-300 
imports  and  exports,  304-5 
market  classes  and  grades,  294-300 
marketing  properly,  307-8 
markets  in  America,  305 
Ohio    Sheep    and    Wool    Growers'    Associa- 
tion, 310 
packing,  307 
painted,  306 

pooling  by  growers,  308-10 
pounds  per  pound  of  cloth,  291 
prices  of  scoured  and  raw,  305-6 
-producing  sta-  e;    303-4 
production  in  U.  S.,  303-4 
pulling,  301-2 
scouring,  302 
see  Fleece  and  '  /^  ols. 
shearing,  hand  ^  -   machine,  307 
shrinkage,  304,  '     .-6 

of  va       .s  grades,  297-9 
sorting,  300-1 
tags,  306 
wet,  307 
Woolens  and  worsteds,  290-1 
Wools,  American,  how  to  improve,  307-8 
and  wool  growing,  288-310 
bright  and  semi-bright,  292 
carding,  290 
carpet,  292 

classifications  of,  292-300 
clipped  and  pulled,  292 
clothing,  290 
combing,  290 

and  clothing,  values  of,  294 
domestic  and  territory,  292-3 
government  standards,  299-300 
Ohio,  292 

see  Fleece  and  Wool. 

washed,   unmerchantable,   and   unwashed, 
293-4 
Worms,  stomach,  of  sheep,  245-6 
Worsteds  and  woolens,  290-1 

Yardage  charges  at  Chicago — 

cattle  and  calves,  87-8 

hogs,  354 

sheep  and  goats,  240 
Yearling  sheep,  fat,  253-4 
feeders,  259 

stockers,  135 
Yeld  mare,  definition  of,  400 
Yolk,  223 

secretion  and  composition,  290 
Yorkers,  370-1 


nOfEKTY  tmiART 


